CONTENTS

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1. Development Process
2. Justification
3. Investigation
4. Investigation Methods
5. System Design
6. Software
7. Evaluation
8. Professionals
9. System Faults
10. Acquisitions

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DEVELOPMENT PROCESS View Graphs

* (c) Copyright 1992 Murray Turoff

RUNAWAYS

* BLACK HOLES OF COMPUTER BUDGETS
* RESULTS IN MANY NEGATIVES
* EXAMPLE : ALLSTATE INSURANCE
* 1982 PROJECT TO COST 8 MILLION

* TO BE COMPLETED IN 1987
* ESTIMATED FOR 1993 AND 100 MILLION

* PEAT MARWICK SURVEY:

* 600 LARGEST FIRMS
* 35% HAVE MAJOR RUNAWAYS

DEVELOPMENT PHASES 1

* USER REQUEST
* APPLICATION SELECTION
* FEASIBILITY STUDY
* JUSTIFICATION STUDY
* INVESTIGATION, ANALYSIS & SYSTEMS DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT PHASES 2

* PROGRAMMING
* SYSTEMS TESTING
* DOCUMENTATION
* CONVERSION & IMPLEMENTATION
* MAINTENANCE
* EVALUATION & POST AUDIT
* UPGRADING

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 1

* CONSIDERABLE OVERLAP BETWEEN PHASES
* CAN BE ITERATIVE AND CYCLIC
* AUTHORIZATION AND APPROVAL CHECKPOINTS
* CAN BE TAILORED TO ORGANIZATION & SITUATION

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 2

* PROJECT INITIATION

* 1. USER REQUEST

* APPLICATION SELECTION
* PROBLEM SELECTION
* EXPLORATORY STUDY

* 2. FEASIBILITY STUDY

* INITIAL REQUIREMENTS DESIGN
* SOLUTION ALTERNATIVES
* EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 3

* PROJECT DEVELOPMENT

* 3. INVESTIGATION

* DATA GATHERING
* FACT FINDING

* 4. ANALYSIS
* 5. SYSTEM DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 4

* PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

* 6. PROGRAMMING

* DESIGN, STRUCTURING
* CODING, DEBUGGING

* 7. SYSTEM TESTING
* 8. DOCUMENTATION

* ONGOING

* 9. CONVERSION

* USER ACCEPTANCE AND TESTS

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 5

* POST PROJECT

* 10. MAINTENANCE & UPDATING
* 11. EVALUATION & POST AUDIT
* 12. UPGRADING

FEEDBACK STRUCTURE

* OPERATIONAL ANALYSIS
* APPLICATION ANALYSIS
* SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
* IMPLEMENTATION
* CONVERSION
* TESTING
* VERIFICATION
* VALIDATION
* EVALUATION

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 1

* USER REQUEST

* 1% OF EFFORT
* PRIORITY

* FEASIBILITY STUDY

* 10% OF EFFORT
* INITIAL DECISION

* INVESTIGATION, ANALYSIS & DESIGN

* 30% OF EFFORT
* FINAL DECISION

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 2

* PROGRAMMING, TESTING, DOCUMENTATION

* 40% OF EFFORT

* CONVERSION & IMPLEMENTATION

* 10% OF EFFORT
* ACCEPTANCE DECISIONS

* EVALUATION & MAINTENANCE

* 10% OF EFFORT
* ONGOING

KEY DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS

* AGE OF EXISTING SYSTEMS
* MANUAL PROCEDURES
* COGNITIVE VARIABILITY
* AGREEMENT ON OLD SYSTEM
* AGREEMENT ON NEW SYSTEM
* WHO GAINS BENEFITS
* WHO GAINS COSTS
* USER COOPERATION
* USER COMPUTER LITERACY
* STAFF CAPABILITY
* MANAGEMENT INVOLVEMENT

SOFTWARE MODELS I

* WATERFALL LIFE CYCLE

* TRADITIONAL LIFE CYCLE
* ANALYSIS, DESIGN, CODE, TEST & MAINTENANCE
* TOP DOWN RIGIDITY
* NO ITERATION BETWEEN PHASES
* DIFFICULT ACCOMMODATING UNCERTAINTY & RISK
* BLACK BOX APPROACH

SOFTWARE MODELS II

* PROTOTYPING

* THROWAWAY APPROACH
* EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH
* INCREMENTAL APPROACH
* CHANCE TO EXPERIMENT
* CAN BE OVERSOLD

* RAISING EXPECTATIONS

* DIFFICULT FOR LARGE COMPLEX SYSTEMS
* SOMETIMES PROTOTYPE CONSIDERED FINAL

SOFTWARE MODELS III

* SPIRAL MODEL
* FOUR MAJOR ACTIVITIES
* (1) DETERMINATION OF OBJECTIVES, ALTERNATIVES, AND CONSTRAINTS

* OBJECTIVES: FUNCTIONALITY, PERFORMANCE, RELIABILITY, FLEXIBILITY
* ALTERNATIVES: DESIGN CHOICES, PURCHASE OR DEVELOP, ETC.
* CONSTRAINTS: TIME, BUDGET, ENABLING TECHNOLOGY, STAFFING, ETC.

SOFTWARE MODELS IV

* SPIRAL MODEL
* (2) RISK ANALYSIS AND PROTOTYPING

* BUDGET OVERRUNS, SCHEDULE SLIPPAGE, STAFFING PROBLEMS, REQUIREMENTS CHANGE, TECHNICAL CHANGES, ETC.
* RISK:

* IDENTIFICATION
* ASSESSMENT
* PRIORITIZATION
* MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
* RESOLUTION
* MONITORING

SOFTWARE MODELS V

* SPIRAL MODEL
* (3) WATERFALL APPROACH TO NEXT LEVEL PRODUCT

* APPROPRIATE VALIDATION OR VERIFICATION

SOFTWARE MODELS VI

* SPIRAL MODEL
* (4) PLAN FOR THE NEXT PHASE
* CYCLE:

* RISK ANALYSIS
* OPERATIONAL PROTOTYPE

* SIMULATIONS, MODELS, BENCHMARKS

* DETAILED DESIGN
* CODE, UNIT TEST, INTEGRATION AND TEST, ACCEPTANCE TEST, IMPLEMENTATION

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES

* SOFTWARE LIBRARIES

* COMPUTER SYSTEM LEVEL

* FUNCTIONAL KERNELS

* INTERFACE FUNCTIONS, HELP LIBRARIES

* FOURTH GENERATION APPLICATION LANGUAGES

* DATABASES

* STRUCTURAL MODELING

* USER GENERATED CODE

REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS I

* TASKS CHANGE
* DIFFICULT TO SPECIFY ALL
* INADEQUACIES MAJOR ROLE IN RUNAWAYS
* DESIGN FOR CHANGE RATHER THAN ABSOLUTE SPECIFICATION
* SUPPORT TOOLS

* DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS, DATA DICTIONARIES, DECISION TABLES, FLOW CHARTS, OBJECT ORIENTED ANALYSIS

* KNOWLEDGE BASED AUTOMATIC SD

* REQUIREMENTS GENERATE CODE

REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS II

* FUNDAMENTAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES

* ABSTRACTION

* USER TASKS

* COUPLING

* MINIMIZE INCORPORATION

* COHESION

* PIECES WORK TOGETHER

* ENCAPSULATION

* REUSE

* MODULARITY

* MAINTAINABLE, EXTENSIBLE

REUSABLE DESIGNS

* REUSE OF DESIGN
* REUSE OF CODE
* CONSTRUCTION OF FRAMEWORKS
* ARTIFACTS OF SOFTWARE
* OBJECT ORIENTED DESIGN

CASE SUPPORT

* ANALYSIS TOOLS

* OOA DIAGRAMS, SPECIFICATION CHECKER, REAL-TIME ANALYSIS TOOLKITS, PROTOTYPING TOOLS, ETC.

* DATA DESIGN TOOLS

* TEXT, GRAPHICS, AND LAYOUT TOOLS FOR DESIGN DOCUMENTATION, AUTOMATED DESIGN ANALYZERS, HYPTERTEXT DATA BASES, ETC.

* STRUCTURE OF REUSE LIBRARIES, OPEN QUESTION

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT R&D I

* FACETED CLASSIFICATION
* SOFTWARE ARCHIVES
* DOMAIN ANALYSIS
* HYPERTEXT TECHNOLOGY
* KNOWLEDGE BASED SYSTEMS

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT R&D II

* OBJECT ORIENTED TECHNOLOGY
* DATA MODELING AND SEMANTIC DATA MODELING
* INTERFACE KERNELS
* STANDARDS
* PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE EXTENSIONS
* USER MENTAL MODELS & COGNITIVE PROCESSING

USER REQUEST 1

* BASED UPON BUSINESS PLAN

* BUSINESS ANALYSIS

* USER GENERATED
* INFORMAL SYSTEMS ANALYSIS REVIEW
* INFORMAL COOPERATION WITH I.S. GROUP
* SHORT DOCUMENT

* 2 TO 10 PAGES

* USUALLY STANDARDIZED ( INFORMALLY)
* SUBMITTED TO STEERING COMMITTEE

USER REQUEST 2

* CONTENT:
* OBJECTIVES

* e.g. COST REDUCTION, MORE SERVICE, WORKLOAD INCREASE, PERFORMANCE GOALS, etc.
* PREFERRED QUANTIFICATION

* BOUNDARIES & CONSTRAINTS

* BUDGET LIMITS
* RESOURCE LIMITS
* SECURITY REQUIREMENTS

* LISTS

* MANDATORY DOCUMENTS

USER REQUEST 3

* TIMESCALE
* IDENTIFIED PROBLEMS
* SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
* USER SHOULD KNOW :

* PROBLEM
* APPLICATION SPECIFICS
USERS ORGANIZATION

* SYSTEMS PEOPLE SHOULD KNOW:

* TECHNOLOGY
* IMPLEMENTATION EFFORT
* GENERALIZABLE APPROACHES

USER REQUEST 4

* STEERING COMMITTEE CONSIDERATIONS

* AVAILABLE RESOURCES
* OTHER PROJECT REQUESTS
* PREDICTABILITY BY PLAN

* STEERING COMMITTEE ALTERNATIVES

* DO IT (ADVANCE TO FEASIBILITY STUDY)
* PUT IT ON HOLD
* TURN BACK FOR MORE INFORMATION
* REJECT IT
* BUCK IT UP TO HIGHER LEVEL

* SOMETIMES FORMAL REQUIREMENT

MIDDLE LEVEL STEERING COMMITTEE 1

* REPRESENTATIVES OF USER UNITS

* MIDDLE MANAGEMENT/ PROFESSIONALS
* COMPUTER LITERATE

* CHAIR IS ASSISTANT CIO
* A FEW I.S. PROFESSIONALS/ MANAGERS

* MINORITY

MIDDLE LEVEL STEERING COMMITTEE 2

* SET PRIORITIES ON PROJECTS
* REVIEW I.S. RESOURCES

* EQUIPMENT
* SOFTWARE
* PEOPLE

* REVIEW LONG & SHORT TERM PLANS
* ENDORSE BUDGET

MIDDLE LEVEL STEERING COMMITTEE 3

* REVIEW MAJOR PROBLEMS
* MAKE RECOMMENDATIONS WHEN NEEDED
* TO REPRESENT USER INTERESTS
* YES/ NO ON USER REQUEST
* YES /NO ON FEASIBILITY STUDY
* REPLACE CHARGING FUNCTION

UPPER LEVEL STEERING COMMITTEE

* TRANSLATE BUSINESS PLANS TO I.S. PLANS
* SET STRATEGIC I.S. OBJECTIVES
* APPROVE MAJOR I.S. PROJECTS
* OVER SOME DOLLAR AMOUNT
* APPROVE MAJOR I.S. EXPENDITURES

* GDBMS
* MAJOR NETWORK EXPANSION
* NEW MAIN FRAME

* HIGHER NEW CIO
* RESOLVE MAJOR CONFLICTS

ROLE OF STEERING COMMITTEE 1

* PRIORITY SETTING FOR PROJECTS
* REVIEW OF PROJECTS
* POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
* APPROVING STANDARDS
* REVIEW OF DP RESOURCES

* RECOMMENDING SIGNIFICANT CHANGES

* REVIEW OF EVALUATION STUDIES
* TRANSLATION OF STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES INTO TACTICAL CRITERIA

ROLE OF STEERING COMMITTEE 2

* DEVELOPING FUNCTION DP REQUIREMENTS
* MEDIATING

* BETWEEN USERS GROUPS
* BETWEEN USERS AND DP SHOP

* RECOMMENDING ORGANISATIONALLY WIDE DP PROJECTS
* REVIEW OF DP BUDGET AND ENDORSEMENT
* SETTING OBJECTIVES FOR DP

ROLE OF THE DP MANAGER 1

* ALLOCATING RESOURCES TO ACCOMPLISH PRIORITIES
* TACTICAL AND OPERATIONAL DECISIONS

* BASED UPON TACTICAL CRITERIA SET UP BY STEERING COMMITTEE

* DECIDING ON TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY OF ANY PROJECT OR EFFORT
* PLANNING DP

* DEVELOPMENT
* STAFFING
* RESOURCE ALLOCATION

ROLE OF THE DP MANAGER 2

* ALLOCATION OF PEOPLE TO JOBS
* RECOMMEND EQUIPMENT AND SOFTWARE
* RECOMMENDING ORGANIZATIONAL STANDARDS

MANAGEMENT REALTIES

* NO EXCUSE FOR FAILURE
* NO EXCUSE FOR NOT HANDLING PROBLEMS
* RESOURCES REQUESTED HAVE TO BE ADEQUATE
* DECISION MUST HAVE SPECIFICITY
* DECISIONS MUST HAVE ACCOUNTABILITY
* PROMISES HAVE TO BE KEPT
* PUNISHMENTS MAY BE LONG TERM

* AT RIGHT TIME, AFTER COVER-UP
* USE OF SCAPEGOATS

* FORMAL & INFORMAL SYSTEMS
* THE HIGHER UP THE TRUER

CONFLICTING OBJECTIVES

* I.S. DEPARTMENT WANTS PERFORMANCE
* TECHNICAL TYPES WANT MODERN TECHNOLOGY
* VENDOR WANTS PROFIT
* BUDGET PEOPLE WANT LEAST COST
* USERS WANT TASKS AND JOBS DONE
* ORGANIZATION WANTS PROFITABILITY

CHECKPOINTS

* DECISIONS

* SCHEDULES, RESOURCES, ETC.

* AGREEMENT

* WHAT IS REALITY AND OBJECTIVES

* WITHIN USER GROUPS
* BETWEEN USER GROUPS
* WITHIN I.S. DEPARTMENT
* BETWEEN I.S. & USERS

GO TO START

FEASIBILITY / JUSTIFICATION STUDY 1

* NOT A DESIGN STUDY
* ENOUGH TO CAREFULLY ESTABLISH

* RESOURCES REQUIRED
* UNCOVER HIDDEN PROBLEMS
* FEASIBLE ALTERNATIVES

* TOP LEVEL DESIGNS
* FIVE TO TEN PERCENTAGE OF EFFORT
* MULTI DISCIPLINARY TEAM

FEASIBILITY / JUSTIFICATION STUDY 2

* TERMS OF REFERENCE

* ROLE IN PLAN
* SCOPE OF STUDY
* METHODS OF STUDY
* OBJECTIVES, BOUNDARIES, & CONSTRAINTS

* EXISTING SYSTEM

* SUMMARY DESCRIPTION
* GROWTH AND FUTURE TRENDS
* PROBLEM ANALYSIS

FEASIBILITY / JUSTIFICATION STUDY 3

* REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION

* DATA REQUIREMENTS
* PROCESSING REQUIREMENTS
* CONSTRAINTS: TIME & SECURITY

* ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS

* OUTLINE DESCRIPTION
* OUTLINE DEVELOPMENT PLAN
* COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS
* ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

* RECOMMENDATIONS & SOLUTIONS
* RELATED DOCUMENTS, REPORTS, DATA

FEASIBILITY / JUSTIFICATION STUDY 4

* SIGN OFF BY I.S. DEPARTMENT
* SIGN OFF BY USER DEPARTMENTS
* SIGN OFF BY STUDY TEAM
* SIGN OFF BY AFFECTED DEPARTMENTS
* LAST "REAL" CHANCE TO KILL PROJECTS

FEASIBILITY / JUSTIFICATION STUDY 5

* STEERING COMMITTEE ACTIONS
* ACCEPT

* SET PRIORITY, STARTING DATE
* CHOOSE SOLUTION

* PUSH IT HIGHER UP \ PUT ON HOLD

* CONDITIONALLY ACCEPT
* SHORTCOMINGS

* SEND BACK FOR MORE WORK
* TABLE (USUALLY POLITICAL)
* CONDITIONALLY REJECT (REASONS WHY)
* REJECT (REASONS WHY)

FEASIBILITY / JUSTIFICATION STUDY 6

* SOLUTION MUST BE:

* TECHNICALLY FEASIBLE
* OPERATIONALLY SUITABLE
* ECONOMICALLY VIABLE

* USER COOPERATION MUST BE ASSURED
* THE MORE EXPENDED ON EFFORT:

* HARDER TO KILL

* IF ACCEPTED:

* DETAILED PLAN LAID OUT FOR:

* INVESTIGATION, ANALYSIS, DESIGN

EVALUATION CRITERIA 1

* COSTS & OBJECTIVES

* ECONOMIC VIABILITY

* IS IT WORTH THE MONEY?

* HARDWARE & SOFTWARE

* TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY

* CAN IT BE PUT TOGETHER?

EVALUATION CRITERIA 2

* PEOPLE & ORGANIZATIONS

* OPERATIONAL SUITABILITY

* CAN IT BE USED?
* WILL IT CAUSE LEARNING?

* PROFITABILITY

* STRATEGIC VIABILITY

* WILL IT MAKE MONEY

ECONOMIC VIABILITY 1

* AUTOMATION

* REDUCE PEOPLE TIME
* SPECIALIZE WORK
* DISPLACE WORK
* ELIMINATE JOBS

* PRODUCTIVITY

* OBTAIN SOONER
* REDUCE COST
* INCREASED QUANTITY
* INCREASE QUALITY

ECONOMIC VIABILITY 2

* OPPORTUNITY

* DO NEW THINGS
* DO DIFFERENT THINGS
* DO IMPOSSIBLE THINGS

DEVELOPMENT EFFORT

* USER REQUEST 1-2%

* UNCERTAINTY IN EFFORT 100%

* FEASIBILITY STUDY 5-10%

* UNCERTAINTY IN EFFORT 50%

* DESIGN STUDY 20-40%

* UNCERTAINTY IN EFFORT 25%

* IMPLEMENTATION 30-60%

* UNCERTAINTY IN EFFORT 10%

* CONVERSION 5-30%

RUNAWAY DANGERS 1

* SATURATED HARDWARE
* NEW TYPE OF APPLICATION
* NEW TECHNOLOGY
* NEW OPERATING SYSTEM
* NEW LANGUAGE
* LOW COST REVIEW CRITERIA
* CONCEPTUAL REQUIREMENT ERRORS

RUNAWAY DANGERS 2

* IGNORING EXCEPTIONS
* IGNORING MANUAL OPERATIONS
* LONG DELAYS
* LARGE PROJECTS
* LACK OF ACCOUNTABILITY
* LACK OF COORDINATION
* LACK OF USER COOPERATION

GO TO START

INVESTIGATION 1

* CURRENT AND NEW SYSTEM
* DATA:

* USES, VOLUME & CHARACTERISTICS

* PROCEDURES:

* WHAT IS DONE, WHERE, WHEN & HOW

* ERROR AND EXCEPTIONS CASES
* PEOPLE:

* WHO DOES WHAT, WHEN AND HOW
* APTITUDE & ATTITUDES

INVESTIGATION 2

* FUTURE:

* GROWTH RATES, PROJECTIONS ON WORKLOADS

* REPORTS AND OUTPUT
* REQUIREMENTS: ACCURACY, TIMELINESS, SECURITY

INVESTIGATION 3

* MAJOR PREDICTABLE PROBLEMS:

* AGE OF EXISTING SYSTEM
* COGNITIVE VARIABILITY
* LORE
* INFORMAL PROCESSES

* MAJOR CHECKPOINT:

* AGREEMENT ON EXISTING SYSTEM
* INVESTIGATORS, USERS

AGREEMENT ROLES

* REQUESTERS
* USERS
* DESIGNERS
* OPERATORS
* SUPPLIERS

AGREEMENT ISSUES

* WHAT WAS THE OLD SYSTEM?
* WHAT IS THE NEW SYSTEM?
* WHO ACCEPTS IT?
* HOW IS IT CHANGED?
* WHAT IS MANUAL PROCEDURE?
* WHAT ARE THE EXCEPTIONS?
* WHAT ARE THE CONSTRAINTS?
* WHO BARES COSTS?
* WHO GAINS BENEFITS?

DECISION & AGREEMENT POINTS 1

* SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS
* USER REQUEST

* INFORMAL AGREEMENT ON COMPUTER
* APPROACH APPROPRIATENESS

* SA/BA AND USER

* INITIAL FEASIBILITY

* COMPUTER GROUP

* INITIAL PRIORITY AND GO AHEAD

* STEERING COMMITTEE

DECISION & AGREEMENT POINTS 2

* FEASIBILITY STUDY

* AGREEMENT ON WHAT CURRENT SYSTEMS IS AND DOES
* AGREEMENT ON WHAT NEW SYSTEM SHOULD DO
* AGREEMENT ON MEANINGFUL ALTERNATIVES

* USERS AND COMPUTER GROUP

* AGREEMENT ON CHOSEN ALTERNATIVE

* STEERING COMMITTEE, USERS AND COMPUTER GROUP

DECISION & AGREEMENT POINTS 3

* FEASIBILITY STUDY

* FINAL PRIORITY FOR PROJECT, GO AHEAD TO NEXT STEP

* STEERING COMMITTEE

* INVESTIGATION, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

* DETAILED AGREEMENT ON WHAT CURRENT SYSTEM DOES, INCLUDING MANUAL PROCESSES
* DETAILED PERFORMANCE CRITERIA FOR NEW SYSTEM

DECISION & AGREEMENT POINTS 4

* INVESTIGATION, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

* EFFORTS REQUIRED ON PART OF USER GROUP
* RESOURCES NEEDED FROM OTHER SOURCES (AUXILIARY GROUPS)

* COMPUTER GROUP AND USERS (MAYBE BAS)

* FINAL DECISION TO GO AHEAD

* STEERING COMMITTEE, COMPUTER GROUP AND USERS

DECISION & AGREEMENT POINTS 5

* PROGRAMMING, SYSTEM TESTING, DOCUMENTATION

* ACCEPTANCE OF THE SYSTEM AS WORKING

* USERS, COMPUTER GROUP, MAINTENANCE GROUP, AUDIT GROUP

* CONVERSION & IMPLEMENTATION

* ACCEPTED AS AN OPERATIONAL SYSTEM

* USERS, COMPUTER GROUP, MAINTENANCE GROUP, AUDIT GROUP

DECISION & AGREEMENT POINTS 6

* EVALUATION OF OBJECTIVES MET

* SA/BA & USERS, STEERING COMMITTEE

* CHANGING REQUIREMENT

* USERS

INVESTIGATION / INQUISITION

* COLLECT INFORMATION

* MAXIMUM AMOUNT
* CORRECT
* RELEVANT

* IN MINIMUM TIME
* WHILE DOING "PUBLIC" RELATIONS

GO TO START

INVESTIGATION METHODS

* STUDY OF DOCUMENTS
* INTERVIEWS
* OBSERVATIONS
* PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
* PROTOCOL ANALYSIS
* QUESTIONNAIRES
* GROUPS (E.G. FOCUS)
* DELPHI
* KEY: STRUCTURE FOR INFORMATION

SAMPLE INTERVIEW CHECKLIST 1

* FOR DOCUMENT

* IDENTIFICATION
* WHAT IS ENTERED
* WHEN, HOW OFTEN RECEIVED?
* HOW MANY ARE RECEIVED?

* PEAKS & TROUGHS?

* WHERE DOES IT COME FROM?

SAMPLE INTERVIEW CHECKLIST 2

* FOR DOCUMENT

* WHO DOES IT COME FROM?
* HOW IS IT DELIVERED?
* WHO DELIVERS IT?
* WHERE IS IT RECEIVED?
* WHO RECEIVES IT?
* WHAT IS IT USED FOR?
* WHAT HAPPENS TO IT?

* LEADS INTO PROCEDURES

SAMPLE INTERVIEW GUIDE

* FOR FUNCTIONS:

* PLACE EACH ON 3 x 5 CARD
* LAY OUT TABLE OF:

* DESIRABILITY
* FEASIBILITY

* REQUEST USER JUDGEMENT
* ASK FOR EXPLANATIONS AND NOTE
* ASK TO FILL IN BLANK CARDS

INTERVIEW GUIDE 1

* DO:

* KEEP PHRASING SIMPLE
* KEEP A LOGICAL SEQUENCE
* LEAVE ROOM FOR NOTES
* KEEP QUESTIONS RELEVANT TO THE PERSON BEING INTERVIEWED
* USE SHORTHAND CODES

* ++ IMPORTANT AGREEMENT
* ? MISSING INFORMATION

* HAVE BACK UP CHECKLISTS FOR

* DOCUMENTS, FILES, PROCEDURES

INTERVIEW GUIDE 2

* DO NOT:

* BE VAGUE IN PHRASING
* CRAM FOR SPACE OR BE UNTIDY
* BE PAROCHIAL

* PROCESS:
* 1. THINK OF MAJOR QUESTION
* 2. ASK IT
* 3. LISTEN
* 4. ANALYZE
* 5. NOTE
* 6. FORM SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION

USER ALTERNATIVES I

* WHAT HE WOULD LIKE ANALYST TO THINK
* WHAT HE THINKS ANALYST WOULD LIKE TO HEAR
* WHAT HE THINKS ANALYST WOULD LIKE TO KNOW
* WHAT ACTUALLY HAPPENS
* WHAT HE WOULD LIKE TO HAPPEN
* WHAT HE HAS BEEN TOLD HAPPENS

USER ALTERNATIVES II

* WHAT HIS SUPERVISOR WOULD LIKE HIM TO SAY
* WHAT IT SAYS OFFICIALLY OCCURS
* WHAT HE HAS BEEN TOLD TO SAY
* WHAT IS GOOD FOR HIM
* WHAT IS GOOD FOR THE ORGANIZATION
* WHAT IS GOOD FOR THE UNIT

USER STRATEGY

* DEVELOP USER COMMUNITY
* ACQUISITIONS TIED TO GOALS
* USE STEERING COMMITTEE
* ENCOURAGE COMPUTER LITERACY
* DEVELOP USER REQUIREMENTS CONTINUOUSLY
* DEAL WITH QUALITATIVE & QUANTITATIVE IMPACTS
* EMPHASIZE: TIME SAVED & NEW OPPORTUNITIES

SA BEHAVIOUR

* BE OBJECTIVE
* VALIDATE
* BE PROFESSIONAL
* DO NOT GIVE UP (POLITE TENACITY)
* FOLLOW THROUGH
* BE DIPLOMATIC

FACTORS INCREASING RESISTANCE

* APPREHENSION ABOUT CHANGE
* UNANSWERED CONCERNS
* CONFLICTS WITH BELIEFS
* PAST NEGATIVE CHANGES
* IRRITATION WITH MANNER OF CHANGE

FACTORS DECREASING RESISTANCE

* PERSONAL SECURITY
* TRUST IN MANAGEMENT, UNION, WORK GROUP
* CONFIRMED POSITIVE EXPECTATIONS
* PAST POSITIVE CHANGES
* SATISFACTION WITH MANNER OF CHANGE

USER QUESTIONS 1

* WILL IT:

* AFFECT MY EARNINGS?
* BLOCK MY PROMOTION PROSPECTS?
* LIMIT MY FREEDOM OF ACTION?
* MEAN I LOSE MY JOB?
* "TAKE THE FUN" OUT OF THE JOB?
* MEAN MORE SUPERVISION?
* CUT THE NUMBER OF MY STAFF?
* IT ERODE MY AUTHORITY?
* IT INCREASE MY WORKLOAD?

USER QUESTIONS 2

* WILL I:

* JUST BECOME A `NEW BOY' ?
* BE ABLE TO COPE WITH EVERYTHING?

* IS THIS JUST THE FIRST STEP, WHAT IS NEXT?

ACCEPTANCE/REJECTION SPECTRUM 1

* ACCEPTANCE

* ENTHUSIASTIC SUPPORT
* ACTIVE COOPERATION
* WILLING ACCEPTANCE
* COOPERATION UNDER PRESSURE
* PASSIVE ACCEPTANCE
* TOLERANCE UNDER SUFFERANCE

* INDIFFERENCE

* APATHY
* MINIMUM EFFORT TO RUN SYSTEM
* REGRESSIVE, NON-LEARNING BEHAVIOUR

ACCEPTANCE/REJECTION SPECTRUM 2

* RESISTANCE

* MINIMUM EFFORT ON WORK GENERALLY
* WITHDRAWAL
* PROTESTS
* BENDING THE SYSTEM
* DELIBERATE SABOTAGE

JUSTIFICATION ANALYSIS 1

* WHAT NEW SYSTEM WILL DO
* TRAP:

* AUTOMATING WHAT WAS DONE BEFORE

* ITEMIZATION OF:

* FUNCTIONS
* DATA
* PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED

* MAJOR CHECKPOINT:

* AGREEMENT ON WHAT NEW SYSTEM WILL DO
* AGREEMENT ON JUSTIFICATION FOR SYSTEM
* INVESTIGATORS, USERS

JUSTIFICATION ANALYSIS 2

* EFFICIENCY

* FUNCTIONS DONE QUICKER
* MORE VOLUME
* SAVE PEOPLE TIME

* ELIMINATE JOBS
* DON'T HIRE

* CHEAPER

* EFFECTIVENESS

* STANDARDS
* STATE OF THE ART (LEARNING)
* INCREASE QUALITY

JUSTIFICATION ANALYSIS 3

* OPPORTUNITY

* DO OLD THINGS, NEW WAYS
* DO NEW THINGS, NEW WAYS
* DO IMPOSSIBLE THINGS

JUSTIFICATION ANALYSIS 4

* PRODUCTIVITY =

* QUALITY x QUANTITY / COST

* EFFICIENCY =

* EFFECTIVENESS / COST

* OPPORTUNITY
* STRATEGIC RELEVANCE
* PROFIT ENHANCEMENT

JUSTIFICATION ANALYSIS 5

* PROBLEMS:
* MEASURES OF PERFORMANCE

* DRUNKARD'S PARADOX
* MEASURING REALITY, NOT POTENTIAL

* MULTIPLE MEASURES (RELATIONSHIPS)

* INDIVIDUAL CONFLICTS
* ARTISTIC COMPROMISES

* SUBJECTIVE ESTIMATIONS
* GROUPS AGREEMENT PROCESSES
* BASIS FOR FINAL COST JUSTIFICATION

GO TO START

SYSTEM DESIGN 1

* CREATE SYSTEM SPECIFICATION

* BUSINESS SYSTEM DESIGN
* TECHNICAL SYSTEM DESIGN

* BASIS FOR

* FINAL COST/BENEFIT ASSESSMENT
* PLAN FOR PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

DESIGN METHODS

* COMPARISON / DIFFERENTIATING
* DESIGNING / REQUIREMENTS

* TASK UNDERSTANDING / MACRO
* COGNITIVE UNDERSTANDING / MICRO

* ENHANCEMENTS / EVOLUTION
* VISIONING / NORMATIVE

* SOCIAL ENGINEERING
* GOAL SETTING

USER INVOLVEMENT

* DEFINING & AGREEING ON PROJECT AIMS
* LIAISON OFFICERS
* DECISION CHECKPOINTS
* STAFF CONTRIBUTIONS TO INVESTIGATION
* STAFF TRAINING
* STAFF PARTICIPATION DURING CONVERSION
* MOCKUP EVALUATION
* EVALUATION
* FEEDBACK

SYSTEM DESIGN 2

* SYSTEM SPECIFICATION DOCUMENT
* FOR OLD AND NEW SYSTEM
* STILL NOT SUBROUTINE LEVEL
* FUNCTIONAL LEVEL
* 1. SYSTEM SUMMARY
* 1.1 MANAGEMENT SUMMARY
* 1.2 SYSTEM ORGANIZATIONAL CHART
* 1.3 NARRATIVE DESCRIPTION
* 1.4 ORGANIZATIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES
* 1.4 COST/BENEFIT STUDY

SYSTEM DESIGN 3

* 2. DATA SPECIFICATIONS
* 2.1 FILES AND DATA STRUCTURES
* 2.2 INPUTS
* 2.3 OUTPUTS
* 3. PROCESSING SPECIFICATIONS
* 3.1 MANUAL
* 3.2 COMPUTER
* 4. INTERFACE SPECIFICATIONS
* 4.1 METAPHOR
* 4.2 SCREEN MOCKUPS
* 4.3 EVALUATION

SYSTEM DESIGN 4

* 5. INTEGRATION SPECIFICATIONS
* 5.1 DATA AND FILE TRANSFER
* 6. CONSTRAINT SPECIFICATIONS
* 6.1 SECURITY
* 6.2 TIME LIMITS
* 7. SYSTEM TEST PLAN
* 7.1 TEST ORGANIZATION
* 7.2 TEST SCHEDULE

SYSTEM DESIGN 5

* 8. CONVERSION PLAN
* 8.1 CONVERSION TASKS & RESPONSIBILITIES
* 8.2 FILE DATA SOURCES & PREPARATION METHODS
* 8.3 CONVERSION SCHEDULE & COSTS

SYSTEM DESIGN 6

* STEERING COMMITTEE

* FINAL DETERMINATION

* GO \ NO GO
* DELAY
* SEEK REVISION
* PASS UP

* AMOUNT
* CONTROVERSY

* USUALLY FORMALITY
* INFORMAL COMMITMENTS CRUCIAL
* BATTLES SETTLED BEFORE

CONVERSION

* FILE CONVERSION
* USER TRAINING
* DOCUMENTATION REVIEW
* OPERATIONAL ACCEPTANCE TRIALS
* MAINTENANCE REVIEW
* SOFTWARE REVIEW
* PROTOTYPING
* HARDWARE DELIVERY & INSTALLATION
* SERVICES EXPANSION

GO TO START

SOFTWARE EXPERIMENT

* 3 PEOPLE TEAMS

* EXPERIENCE & TALENT

* 3 DAY EFFORT ROUGHLY
* OBJECTIVES

* CREATE IN SHORTEST TIME
* CREATE SHORTEST CODE
* MINIMUM CORE USAGE
* MINIMUM EXECUTION ITEM
* EASY TO MAINTAIN CODE
* EASY TO READ OUTPUT

* SOFTWARE AS AN ART FORM

SOFTWARE COST OBSERVATIONS 1

* COST OF ERRORS = 50%
* COST OF CONCEPTUAL & DESIGN ERRORS = 40%

* ERROR IN ESTIMATION OF EFFORT

* BEFORE REQUIREMENTS 100%
* BEFORE DEVELOPMENT 50%
* BEFORE OPERATIONS 25%

* IF STANDARD/FREQUENT JOB 1/2 ABOVE

SOFTWARE COST OBSERVATION 2

* COST OF SOFTWARE LINE OF CODE

* LINEAR UP TO 70% MACHINE UTILIZATION.
* TWICE AS MUCH AT 80%
* FOUR TIMES AT 90%

PROGRAMMING, TESTING, DOCUMENTATION 1

* FINAL DECOMPOSITION OF SPECIFICATIONS

* TAILORED TO PEOPLE RESOURCES
* TAILORED TO HARDWARE & SOFTWARE

* CONSIDERABLE OVERLAP
* CASE AND SOFTWARE ENGINEERING
* LIVE TESTING
* INTERFACE REFINEMENT

PROGRAMMING, TESTING, DOCUMENTATION 2

* VARIABILITIES

* MANAGEMENT STYLE
* DEGREE OF TALENT
* STATE OF HARDWARE & SOFTWARE
* MORAL & COMMITMENT
* ATTITUDE OF TECHNICAL PEOPLE

PROGRAMMING, TESTING, DOCUMENTATION 3

* VARIABILITIES

* RELATIONSHIPS TO USER GROUPS
* DEGREE OF SPECIALIZATION
* TEAM STRUCTURES

* STANDARD
* EGOLESS
* SURGICAL
* APPRENTICESHIP
* BALANCED

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT CONCERNS I

* NOT WHAT YOU DO BUT WHO DOES IT
* NEVER INSTALL WITHOUT TESTING
* IN CASE OF FAILURE STOP AND THINK, NOT RUN
* MAKE SURE COMPETITION DOES NOT WIPE OUT GAINS

* PROPRIETARY HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE TRAP

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT CONCERNS II

* EFFICIENT IF YOU PRODUCE MORE WITH LESS
* EFFECTIVE IF YOU POCKET THE GAINS
* MAKE ONLY ONE MAJOR CHANGE AT A TIME

* SYSTEM FAULTS ARE MULTIPLICATIVE

* ANTICIPATE CHANGE
* INVESTIGATE EXCEPTIONS

MAINTENANCE

* USED TO DISGUISE RUNAWAYS

* COST YEAR ONE EQUALS DEVELOPMENT COST

* ALL SYSTEMS SUBJECT TO CHANGE
* SUPPORT SOFTWARE CHANGES
* SOURCES OF APPLICATION CHANGES

* RESIDUAL BUGS
* UNEXPECTED EXCEPTIONS
* CHANGING USER REQUIREMENTS
* REDUCTIONISM ERRORS

* TRADEOFFS AND CONFLICTS

* APPLICATIONS CONCEPTION ERRORS

SOFTWARE MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS 1

* IN ORDER OF IMPORTANCE:

* USER KNOWLEDGE
* LACK OF USER UNDERSTANDING
* INADEQUATE TRAINING
* PROGRAMMER EFFECTIVENESS

* PRODUCTIVITY, MOTIVATION & SKILLS
* PRODUCT QUALITY
* ADEQUATE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
* QUALITY OF PROGRAMMING
* QUALITY OF DOCUMENTATION

SOFTWARE MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS 2

* MACHINE REQUIREMENTS
* STORAGE & PROCESSING TIME
* SYSTEM RELIABILITY
* HARDWARE & SOFTWARE
* DATA INTEGRITY

EVALUATION

* ACHIEVE WHAT USERS WANTED?
* HAVE REQUIREMENTS CHANGED?
* EASY TO LEARN?
* TRAINING AND HELP ADEQUATE?
* USER EFFORT REQUIRED
* HARDWARE & SOFTWARE PERFORMANCE?
* ERROR TYPE AND FREQUENCY ANALYSIS?
* FREQUENCY AND TYPE OF EXCEPTIONS?
* EVOLUTION?
* USER SATURATION?
* INTEGRATION?

SUPPORT FUNCTIONS

* STANDARDS
* TRAINING
* SYSTEMS SOFTWARE
* GENERAL APPLICATION SYSTEMS

* DATABASES
* COMMUNICATIONS
* TRANSACTION TRACKING

* DOCUMENTATION, LIBRARY, CLERICAL
* FORWARD RESOURCE PLANNING
* FORWARD SYSTEM PLANNING
* DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING & SYSTEMS

GO TO START

EVALUATION View Graphs

* (c) Copyright 1992 Murray Turoff

EVALUATION OF SYSTEMS 1

* COMPUTER SCIENCE

* EXPERT JUDGMENT
* WISDOM
* FEATURES COMPARISON
* NETWORK & FLOW MODELS

EVALUATION OF SYSTEMS 2

* INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

* ERGONOMICS
* ERROR ANALYSES
* ACTIVITY MONITORING
* HUMAN FACTORS
* MOTOR ABILITIES
* SIMULATIONS & MODELS

EVALUATION OF SYSTEMS 3

* PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL

* MENTAL ABILITIES
* PROTOCOL ANALYSIS
* FOCUSED GROUPS
* CONTROLLED EXPERIMENTS
* FIELD TRIALS
* INTERVIEWS
* SURVEYS
* LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

EVALUATION OF SYSTEMS 4

* MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

* SYSTEM MONITORING
* USER SATISFACTION
* COST - BENEFITS / PRODUCTIVITY
* EFFICIENCY
* QUALITY
* OPPORTUNITIES

EVALUATION OF SYSTEMS 5

* COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

* COGNITIVE PROCESSES
* TASK ANALYSIS
* HUMAN PROBLEM SOLVING

* SOCIOLOGICAL

* GROUP PROCESSES
* ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTION

EVALUATION OF SYSTEMS 6

* ANTHROPOLOGICAL

* METAPHORS
* PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

* ARCHAEOLOGICAL

* ARTIFACTS & TOOLS

* PHILOSOPHICAL

* VIRTUAL REALITY

EVALUATION

* "IMPLEMENTATION WITHOUT A FORMAL ASSESSMENT IS LIKE TRYING TO NEGOTIATE A MINEFIELD BLINDFOLDED." JAMES BAIR IN THE OFFICE OF THE FUTURE

FORMATIVE EVALUATION

* FEEDBACK PERMITS CORRECTIVE ACTION IF PERFORMANCE IS SUB OPTIMAL AND SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT (GUIDES SYSTEM EVOLUTION)
* PRODUCES IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES
* PREVENTS INCORRECT & SURFACE INTERPRETATIONS

SUMMATIVE EVALUATION

* MEASURE AND "PROVE" SIGNIFICANT BENEFITS AND COSTS IN TERMS OF IMPACTS
* USUALLY NECESSARY TO ASSURE CONTINUED FUNDING OF USE OF THE SYSTEM AFTER A PILOT

EVALUATION MODEL 1

* ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

* INFLUENCE SYSTEM
* E.G. JOB MARKETPLACE

* CONTROL VARIABLES

* CAN CHANGE SYSTEM
* E.G. SALARY POLICY

EVALUATION MODEL 2

* INTERVENING VARIABLES

* CAN BE MEASURED
* E.G. JOB SATISFACTION

* OUTPUT VARIABLES

* OF INTEREST
* E.G., JOB TURNOVER

EVALUATION GUIDELINES

* SHOULD BE OVER TIME
* MEASUREMENT POINTS

* BEFORE USAGE
* SHORT TERM
* LONG TERM

* SHOULD USE SEVERAL METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

QUESTIONNAIRES

* MAIN SOURCE OF QUANTIFIABLE DATA

* SUBJECTED TO MULTI-VARIATE ANALYSIS
* TO UNTANGLE CAUSALITY

* REPEAT SOME QUESTIONS

* TWO OR MORE POINTS IN TIME
* OBSERVE CHANGES

EVALUATION METHODS 1

* SURVEYS
* PROTOCOL ANALYSIS
* INTERVIEWS
* FOCUSED GROUPS
* ACTIVITY MONITORING
* PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

EVALUATION METHODS 2

* MENTAL MODELS
* COGNITIVE WALKTHROUGHS
* PILOT & PROTOTYPE TESTING
* CONTROLLED EXPERIMENTS
* LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
* FIELD TRIALS
* ARTIFACT & TOOL ANALYSIS

PERFORMANCE OF I.S. 1

* QUANTITATIVE

* THROUGHPUT
* RELIABILITY
* TIMELINESS
* ACCURACY
* QUANTITY
* AVAILABILITY
* APTITUDE
* USE

PERFORMANCE OF I.S. 2

* QUALITATIVE & SUBJECTIVE

* QUALITY
* OPPORTUNITY
* RELEVANCE
* SELECTIVITY
* COOPERATION
* ATTITUDES
* CHANGE
* MORAL & COHESION
* STRESS & EFFORT

VIEWS OF THE WORLD

* REAL WORLD

* OUTCOMES VALIDATION

* REQUIREMENTS MODEL

* SYSTEMS ANALYSIS VERIFICATION

* IMPLEMENTATION MODEL

* SYSTEM DESIGN TESTING

* INTERFACE MODEL

* METAPHOR SYSTEM OPACITY

* MENTAL MODEL

* EXPERIENCE FUNCTIONAL OPACITY

INFORMATION DOMAINS OF USERS I

* COMMON I.S. SUPPORT LEVELS

* SIMPLE INQUIRY / CALCULATIONS / MESSAGING
* ORGANIZING / FILTERING / SUMMARIZING
* STATUS BRIEFING / REPORT GENERATION
* TRACKING / MONITORING

INFORMATION DOMAINS OF USERS II

* CURRENT INDIVIDUAL CHALLENGES

* EXCEPTION REPORTING
* MODELING / STRUCTURING
* DIAGNOSIS
* DISCOVERY
* HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND ANALYSIS

* CURRENT GROUP CHALLENGES

* PLANNING AND DECISION ANALYSIS
* DECISION IMPLEMENTATION
* COMMAND AND CONTROL

USER ROLES AND TYPES

* NOVICE, CASUAL
* INTERMEDIARY
* FREQUENT
* OPERATOR, SPECIALIZED
* EXPERIENCED, ROUTINE
* PROBLEM SOLVER
* POWER
* RESULTS:

* DIFFERENT ROLES IN ONE SYSTEM
* MULTIPLE INTERFACE METHODS

USER RESPONSE TO INADEQUATE SYSTEM 1

* DIS-USE:

* TURN TO OTHER SOURCES

* MIS-USE:

* USING INAPPROPRIATE WAYS

* PARTIAL USE:

* USE OF WRONG SUBSET

* DISTANT USE:

* USE OF INTERMEDIARY

USER RESPONSE TO INADEQUATE SYSTEM 2

* MODIFICATION OF TASK:

* CHANGE TASK TO FIT SYSTEM

* COMPENSATORY ACTIVITY:

* USER HAS TO DO MORE

* DIRECT PROGRAMMING:

* USER MODIFIES SYSTEM

* NON-USE:

* AVOIDING THE SYSTEM

GO TO START

PROFESSIONALS View Graphs

* (c) Copyright 1992 Murray Turoff

PEOPLE STRUCTURE 1

* PROGALYSES
* ONE PERSON ALL TASKS

* FROM USER REQUEST TO EVALUATION

* HISTORICAL APPROACH
* TYPICAL IN

* SMALL BUSINESS
* UNDER 15 TECHNICAL PEOPLE
* USER ORGANIZATIONAL UNIT

* TECHNICAL STAFF AS GENERAL WORKERS
* GOOD MORAL

PEOPLE STRUCTURE 2

* USER REQUEST

* BUSINESS ANALYST

* FEASIBILITY STUDY

* BUSINESS ANALYST
* APPLICATION SYSTEMS ANALYST

* INVESTIGATION, ANALYSIS

* BUSINESS ANALYST
* APPLICATION SYSTEMS ANALYST
* TECHNICAL SYSTEMS ANALYST

PEOPLE STRUCTURE 3

* SYSTEM DESIGN

* APPLICATION SYSTEM ANALYST
* TECHNICAL SYSTEMS ANALYST
* SYSTEMS DESIGNER
* INTERFACE DESIGNER
* SENIOR PROGRAMMER

PEOPLE STRUCTURE 4

* PROGRAMMING DOCUMENTATION

* SYSTEM DESIGNER
* SENIOR PROGRAMMER
* APPLICATION PROGRAMMERS
* SYSTEM PROGRAMMERS
* DOCUMENTORS

PEOPLE STRUCTURE 5

* SYSTEM TESTING

* SYSTEM ASSURANCE OFFICERS
* MAINTENANCE ANALYSTS
* AUDITORS
* TESTORS
* TRAINERS

PEOPLE STRUCTURE 6

* CONVERSION

* SYSTEM ANALYST
* APPLICATION SYSTEM ANALYST
* MAINTENANCE ANALYST
* MAINTENANCE OPERATORS
* SYSTEM ASSURANCE OFFICERS
* AUDITORS
* TRAINERS
* USERS

PEOPLE STRUCTURE 7

* MAINTENANCE, EVALUATION

* MAINTENANCE STAFF
* USERS
* TRAINERS
* BUSINESS ANALYSTS
* APPLICATIONS SYSTEMS ANALYSTS

I.S. CENTRALIZED STAFFING 1

* LARGE ORGANIZATIONS:

* BUSINESS ANALYSTS
* SYSTEMS ANALYSTS
* SYSTEMS DESIGNERS
* SYSTEM PROGRAMMERS
* APPLICATION PROGRAMMERS

I.S. CENTRALIZED STAFFING 2

* LARGE ORGANIZATIONS

* SYSTEMS ASSURANCE SPECIALISTS
* MAINTENANCE SPECIALISTS
* DATA BASE SPECIALISTS
* AUXILIARY SPECIALTIES

* HUMAN FACTORS, COMMUNICATIONS
* EVALUATION, AUDITING
* TRAINING, DOCUMENTATION

PEOPLE STRUCTURE 8

* PROGALYST ADVANTAGES

* SIMPLIFIED COMMUNICATIONS

* BETWEEN PEOPLE
* BETWEEN PHASES

* TECHNICALLY REALISTIC SYSTEMS
* CONSISTENCY OF QUALITY

PEOPLE STRUCTURE 9

* PROGALYST DISADVANTAGES

* LIMITED NUMBER OF PROJECTS
* WORKLOAD IMBALANCE
* ONE SA CAN KEEP MANY BUSY
* MAINTENANCE BUILDS UP
* DOCUMENTATION OFTEN NEGLECTED
* WEAK LINK IN CHAIN TALENT SITUATION
* PEOPLE SKILLS AND TECHNICAL TALENT?

PEOPLE STRUCTURE 10

* SPECIALIZATION ADVANTAGES

* BALANCED WORKLOADS
* HIGH DEGREE OF PROFESSIONALISM
* CLEAR ADVANCEMENT ROUTES
* PRODUCTIVITY
* ACCOUNTABILITY

PEOPLE STRUCTURE 11

* SPECIALIZATION DISADVANTAGES

* ARRANGING WORKABLE HANDOVER POINTS
* ENFORCING RIGOROUS DOCUMENTATION
* POST MORTUM ANALYSIS
* COORDINATING PARALLEL ACTIVITIES
* CREATING MEANINGFUL JOBS
* PREVENTING IMBALANCES OF:

* POWER AND AUTHORITY
* STATUS

TECHNICAL TALENTS 1

* SA'S AND PROGRAMMERS
* ABILITIES

* COMMUNICATION
* ANALYSIS
* DISCIPLINE
* SOCIAL SENSITIVITY
* DETAIL
* COORDINATION

TECHNICAL TALENTS 2

* KNOWLEDGE & EXPERIENCE

* HARDWARE & SOFTWARE
* DATA HANDLING
* MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS & TECHNIQUES
* COMMUNICATIONS & ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
* BUSINESS PROBLEMS & TECHNIQUES
* INDIVIDUAL & GROUP PROCESSES

SA SPECIAL TALENTS

* MAINTAINING CUSTOMER RELATIONS
* MAINTAINING CUSTOMER COMMUNICATIONS
* ASSESSING CUSTOMER NEEDS
* CONDUCTING PRESENTATIONS
* TRAINING OTHERS
* PROVIDING SUPERVISION & LEADERSHIP

LOSING OBJECTIVITY

* `HALO' EFFECT
* DONE IT BEFORE
* PERSONAL RELATION TO USER
* DESIGN IN DETAIL TOO EARLY
* WITHDRAW IN CONFUSION
* FRUSTRATION WITH PROGRESS
* TOO CLOSE TO USERS
* TOO DISTANCE FROM USERS

IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TALENTS 1

* TRAINING OTHERS
* DOCUMENTATION
* PROVIDING SUPERVISION & LEADERSHIP
* TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE
* MAINTAINING CUSTOMER RELATIONS
* SYSTEM MODIFICATIONS

IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TALENTS 2

* MAINTAINING COMMUNICATIONS
* ASSESSING CUSTOMER NEEDS
* JOB COMMITMENT & EFFORT
* DEBUGGING & TESTING
* CONDUCTING PRESENTATIONS
* PLANNING, ORGANIZING & SCHEDULING

FACTORS AFFECTING SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 1

* QUALITY OF MANAGEMENT
* MANAGEMENT CLIMATE
* STAFF RELATIONS CLIMATE

* TRUST, CONFIDENCE, FAIR DEALING, DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY
* MISTRUST, MOCKERY, ANGER, INTERFERENCE

FACTORS AFFECTING SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 2

* PROCESS OF CREATING PROJECTS

* "THIS COMPUTER PROCESS IS TYPICAL. MY BOSS GETS A BEE IN HIS BONNET ABOUT A NEW SYSTEM. PROBABLY HE WAS SOLD THE IDEA BY SOMEONE ELSE. OUT OF THE BLUE, WITHOUT CONSULTATION, HE ANNOUNCES THAT A NEW SYSTEM MUST GO IN BY THE END OF THE YEAR".

MANAGEMENT STYLES

* CONCERN FOR
* PEOPLE PRODUCTION JARGON
* HIGH HIGH TEAM MANAGEMENT
* MEDIUM MEDIUM CONSERVATIVE
COMPROMISE
* HIGH LOW COUNTRY CLUB
* LOW HIGH TASK MANAGEMENT
* LOW LOW IMPOVERISHED (WIB)

MANAGEMENT STYLES

* ROLES OF SYSTEMS ANALYST
* TEAM MANAGEMENT SA CATALYST
* CONSERVATIVE SA COMMITTEE

MEMBER

* COUNTRY CLUB SA TOLD
* TASK MANAGEMENT SA TELLS
* IMPOVERISHED SA IGNORES

HERZBERG'S MOTIVATION/HYGIENE THEORY

* MOTIVATORS (JOB CONTENT)

* ACHIEVEMENT: PRIDE IN A JOB
* RECOGNITION: PRAISE
* WORK: INTERESTING & CHALLENGING
* RESPONSIBILITY: CARRYING OUT TASKS
* ADVANCEMENT: MOBILITY

* HYGIENE FACTORS (JOB CONTEXT)

* COMPANY POLICY & ADMINISTRATION
* INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS
* SUPERVISION
* SALARY AND WORKING CONDITIONS

MOTIVATION

* NEEDS

* CAUSE

* DRIVES

* WHICH GENERATE

* BEHAVIOUR

* TO REACH

* GOALS

* THAT LEAD TO

* REDUCTION OF TENSION

MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

* 1. PHYSIOLOGICAL

* STARVING, FREEZING

* 2. SAFETY

* PHYSICAL RISK
* FREEDOM RISK

* 3. LOVE & BELONGING

* SOCIAL, TRIBAL

* 4. ESTEEM

* RECOGNITION

* 5. SELF ACTUALIZATION

* DOING YOUR BEST

HAWTHORN EXPERIMENTS 1

* PRODUCTIVITY INCREASES AS A RESULT OF ATTENTION

* 1. FEELING OF IMPORTANCE
* 2. TEAM SPIRIT
* 3. COMMON OBJECTIVE
* 4. PLEASANT ENVIRONMENT
* 5. FRIENDLY SUPERVISION

HAWTHORN EXPERIMENTS 2

* MAFIA WORKS GROUPS:

* 1. INFORMAL
* 2. LIMIT ON INDIVIDUAL
PRODUCTIVITY
* 3. TRANSGRESSORS PUNISHED
* 4. INFORMAL
LEADER/REPRESENTATIVE
* 5. CLANNISH

CLIMATE CONDITIONS

* QUALITY OF MANAGEMENT
* MANAGEMENT CLIMATE
* STAFF RELATION CLIMATE
* QUALITY OF I.S. STAFF
* QUALITY OF USERS

TURNOVER MODEL 1

* DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES

* AGE -
* ORGANIZATIONAL TENURE -
* EDUCATION+

* ROLE STRESSORS

* ROLE AMBIGUITY (EXPECTATIONS) +
* ROLE CONFLICT (EVALUATION) +

* CAREER RELATED

* SALARY -
* PROMOTABLITIY -
* CAREER OPPORTUNITIES +

TURNOVER MODEL 2

* INTERVENING VARIABLES

* JOB SATISFACTION-
* CAREER SATISFACTION-
* ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT-

* OUTPUT VARIABLE

* TURNOVER RATE

TALENT ISSUE

* WHAT ARE THE PRACTICES AND POLICES THAT WILL MAINTAIN OUTSTANDING TECHNICAL TALENTS IN YOUR ORGANIZATION?

FAVOURABLE MANAGEMENT CLIMATE

* MANAGERS ALLOWED TO MANAGE
* ACHIEVEMENT WILL BE RECOGNIZED AND REWARDED
* ENTERPRISE AND NEW IDEAS ACCEPTED
* SENIOR MANAGERS LISTEN TO THOSE BELOW
* ACCOUNTABILITY IS CLEAR
* RESPONSIBILITY CAN BE DELEGATED

LEADERSHIP CHARACTERISTICS IN I.S.

* INDUSTRY AND ORGANIZATIONAL KNOWLEDGE
* RELATIONSHIPS IN THE FIRM AND INDUSTRY
* REPUTATION AND TRACK RECORD
* ABILITIES AND SKILLS
* PERSONAL VALUES
* MOTIVATION

GO TO START

SYSTEM FAULTS View Graphs

* (c) Copyright 1992 Murray Turoff

MAJOR SYSTEM FAULTS 1

* REPORTS INADEQUATE/REDUNDANT

* LACK OF RECALL

* INFORMATION OVERLOAD

* LACK OF PRECISION

* LOW DATA ACCURACY
* MISSED SCHEDULES

MAJOR SYSTEM FAULTS 2

* EXCEEDED CAPACITY
* EXISTING SYSTEMS RETAINED
* NOT ALL PROCESSING/DATA INCLUDED
* COGNITIVE & TASK MISMATCHES
* RESTRICTIVE OR INFLEXIBLE
* STAFF UNDER PRESSURE
* DIFFICULT TO LEARN

SYSTEM FAULT CONSEQUENCES

* HIGHER COSTS

* EXCESSIVE MAINTENANCE
* MORE HARDWARE
* MORE STAFF

* LOWER BENEFITS

* PROBLEMS NOT FULLY SOLVED
* USER DISSATISFACTION
* POOR QUALITY OUTPUTS

* NEW PROBLEMS CREATED

* MANAGEMENT INFORMATION NOT USED
* FULL POTENTIAL OF SYSTEM UNUSED

INADEQUATE REPORTS

* MANAGERS

* DID NOT KNOW WHAT TO ASK
* DID NOT KNOW WHAT TO EXPECT
* WERE NOT COMPUTER LITERATE
* NOT QUANTITATIVE ORIENTED

* ANALYST

* THOUGHT THEY KNEW BEST
* PRODUCE EASY REPORTS
* REPORTS EVERYTHING

LOW DATA ACCURACY

* INPUT PROCEDURE TOO COMPLEX
* EXCEPTIONS NOT PROPERLY REPRESENTED
* ANOTHER RESPONSIBLE FOR CORRECTION

PERSON OR MACHINE

* EFFICIENT USE OF PRINTER
* READABLE REPORTS
* SPUDS, MURPHY'S
* MINIMIZE INPUT ERRORS
* USER COSTS IGNORED

REPORT AND DATA SOLUTIONS

* USER DEFINED REPORT CAPABILITIES
* DATA SOURCE RESPONSIBLE FOR INPUT
* DATA SOURCE GAINS BENEFIT FROM SYSTEM

SYSTEM FAILURE CAUSES

* USERS DO NOT PARTICIPATE
* ANALYST THINKS S/HE KNOWS BEST
* POOR INVESTIGATION
* NO OBJECTIVES SET
* NO CHECKPOINTS
* MACHINES PUT FIRST
* PEOPLE IGNORED
* PURE AUTOMATION APPROACH
* NO PROBLEM ANALYSIS

ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING

* INVESTMENT AND INITIATION

* FAILURE: STAGNATION

* TECHNOLOGY LEARNING & ADAPTATION

* FAILURE: NARROW FOCUS & AUTOMATION

* RATIONALIZATION & MANAGEMENT CONTROL

* FAILURE: EFFICIENCY DOMINATED

* MATURITY & WIDESPREAD USE

* FAILURE: RIGIDITY

GO TO START

ACQUISITION View graphs

* (c) Copyright 1992 Murray Turoff

ACQUISITION TIME

* SMALL ACQUISITIONS (MICROS)

* 2 MONTHS (1 WEEK TO 6 MONTHS)

* MEDIUM ACQUISITIONS (PC UPGRADE)

* 5 MONTHS (2-18 MONTHS)

* LARGE ACQUISITIONS (NEW CP)

* 22 MONTHS (6 MONTHS TO 6 YEARS)

CRITICAL FACTORS IN ACQUISITION

* DP PLAN RELATING ACQUISITIONS TO BUSINESS OBJECTIVES
* KNOWLEDGE OF MANAGEMENT AND PROFESSIONALS ABOUT COMPUTERS
* USER GENERATED REQUIREMENTS
* PRE-SCREENING OF VENDORS
* SPECIAL EXPERTISE IN LEGAL, CONTRACT AND PROCUREMENT AREA.
* PROCUREMENT GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS

COSTING METHODS 1

* FREE USE CENTER

* DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT
* SINGLE USE APPLICATIONS

* RESOURCE CENTER

* PRIORITIES
* PLANNED ALLOCATION

* COST CENTER

* FULL, MARGINAL
* AVERAGE, ACTUAL
* TRANSACTIONS

COSTING METHODS 2

* PROFIT CENTER

* FREE MARKET
* NON COST RELATED

* CONSIDERATIONS

* SHARED RESOURCES
* MAKE OR BUY
* SUPPLY OR USE
* PREDICTABILITY
* UNDERSTANDABLE

GOVERNMENTAL DIFFICULTIES

* BUDGET AGRICULTURAL CYCLE

* LACK OF PLANNING RELIANCE

* EFFICIENCY EMPHASES
* AUTOMATION JUSTIFICATION

* NO DECISIONS

* STAFFING

* EXPERTS AS MANAGERS
* SALARIES

* LOW COST AWARDS
* PUBLIC EXPOSURE

GOVERNMENTAL COUNTERS

* CAMOUFLAGE (Word Processing)
* NUMBER TOYING & FUDGING
* CRISES OPPORTUNITIES

* CREATE IT

* STICKING ONES NECK OUT
* CO OP IMPORTANT USERS
* USER TECHNOLOGY
* TURN TAKING
* RESOURCE SHARING

VENDOR PLOYS 1

* WE DON'T NEED TO WRITE THAT DOWN!
* YOUR GETTING OUR BEST PRICE!
* PRICE INCREASE COMING!
* RIGHT TO SUBSTITUTE AND OTHER SHELL GAMES!
* FORM CONTRACTS!
* TRY IT, YOU'LL LIKE IT!
* WE CAN'T DO IT BECAUSE GSA WON'T LET US
* WE WOULD BE SETTING A PRECEDENT!

VENDOR PLOYS 2

* WE WILL ANNOUNCE A MODIFICATION SOON TO HANDLE THAT!
* YOU CAN BE ASSURED WE WILL OFFER THAT IN THE FUTURE
* OUR LANGUAGE MATCHES THE STANDARD AND THEN ADDS MORE
* IF YOU SIGN FOR FIVE YEARS MAINTENANCE WE CAN LOWER THE BASE PRICE

COMMON MYTHS

* MY PRODUCT HAS TO BE EASY TO USE -- MY SECRETARY USES IT
* IT MUST BE GOOD -- I NEVER HEARD COMPLAINTS
* WE WILL MAKE IT EASY TO USE -- JUST QUANTIFY IT FOR US
* I HAVE ADDED EVERY EASY TO USE FEATURE I COULD THINK OF
* IT IS EASY TO USE -- I USE IT MYSELF

SYSTEM SEXY

* ALL FUNCTIONS
* COMPATIBLE WITH EVERYTHING
* EASY TO LEARN
* EASY TO USE
* INFINITELY FLEXIBLE
* WILL HELP ANYONE FOR ANYTHING
* WILL SAVE A FORTUNE
* SOFTWARE WORKS PERFECTLY
* ULTIMATE RELIABILITY
* HAS GAMES

CONCERNS ABOUT USE OF MICROS

* UNDETECTED ERRORS IN PROGRAMS
* HIDDEN MODELS
* LACK OF ACCOUNTABILITY
* CONTROL OF DATA ACCURACY
* LOSS OF KEY PERSONAL
* DUPLICATION OF RESOURCES

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