Reprints of Invited papers for:
March 7-10, 1995
Our objective is not to merely duplicate the characteristics and effectiveness of the face to face class. Rather, we can use the powers of the computer to actually do better than what normally occurs in the face to face class.
The sophistication and flexibility of software structures for supporting distance education vary widely, from simple electronic mail systems to Conferencing systems that have been specially enhanced to support classroom-like experiences, particularly group discussions and joint projects. Currently, a large number of colleges offer remote courses utilizing various forms of Computer Mediated Communications (Harasim, Hiltz, Teles & Turoff, 1995; Paulsen & Rekkedal, 1990; Wells, 1990).
We (the many individuals at NJIT involved in the development, utilization, and evaluation of remote education) utilize a computer conferencing system with advanced features designed specifically to support Learning Networks: teachers and learners connected to each other and to vast resources of the Internet. The conferencing system, Electronic Information Exchange System (EIES), provides features for classroom discussions, a sophisticated question and response facility, an exam activity and other group learning tools.
Beginning in 1986, the Virtual Classroom[TM], a teaching and learning environment constructed in software and available via the Internet, has been developed with funding from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, the Sloan Foundation, the state of New Jersey, and industrial partners including IBM and Apple. As part of this project, it is offering an entire degree program, the B.A. in Information Systems, via videotapes plus the Virtual Classroom[TM]. An increasing number of graduate courses are also offered remotely.
The Virtual Classroom[TM] is a teaching and learning environment located within a computer-mediated communication system. The objectives of a Virtual Classroom[TM] are to improve access to advanced educational experiences by allowing students and instructors to participate in remote learning communities using personal computers at home or at work; and to improve the quality and effectiveness of education by using the computer to support a collaborative learning process. By collaborative learning is meant a learning process that emphasizes group or cooperative efforts among faculty and students, active participation and interaction on the part of both students and instructors, and new knowledge that emerges from an active dialog among those who are sharing ideas and information (Bouton and Garth, 1983; Whipple, 1987).
Learning can be perceived as a particular type of cooperative work. Studies of the use of computer-mediated communication facilities that form components of a Virtual Classroom[TM] environment have tended to support the point of view that for mature, motivated learners, this mode of learning can be more interactive and more effective than the traditional (physical) classroom (see Welsch, 1982; Quinn, et. al., 1983; Davie and Palmer, 1984; Harasim, 1990; Hiltz, 1988, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1995).
One cannot, for example, learn to paint by viewing a finished painting; rather, one must see the evolution of the painting from blank canvas to finished product. The student must observe the instructor's mental process and the instructor must observe that of the student. It is this view that underlies much of the functionality for multimedia, Hypertext, and group communications that comprise our current research into the evolution of the Virtual Classroom[TM].
As with other CMCSs tailored to support a specific type of application, some of these communication structures resemble facilities or procedures used in the off-line analogical world. Others support forms of interaction that would be difficult or impossible in the face-to-face environment. All are accessed, not by traveling to a university, but by typing and reading from a personal computer that connects by telephone to a computer acting as the "group agent" for the Virtual Classroom software.
A conference is a stored transcript of a discussion. It has a membership list that is controlled by the owner or the instructor and a comment-reply structure. In EIES there is a full indexing capability for each conference that allows easy retrieval of the discussion and is especially useful since a typical class discussion reaches 500 to 1000 comments in a single course (not counting assignments). The conference automatically tracks for the member what is new and what "activities or assignments the members has or has not seen or done. A single activity like the "gradebook" eliminates a tremendous amount of message traffic that would have had to take place if one was using messages only.
An excellent illustration is the Question-Answer Activity, where if the instructor asks a discussion question, every student must supply an answer before he or she can see the answers of the other students. This is clearly a dramatic improvement over the face to face class where such discussions are usually dominated by the same small percentage of the students. This feature in VC forces equal participation in any discussion issue the instructor triggers in this manner. It forces each student to do independent thinking about the issue.
Another key facility is the use of anonymity and/or pen names. For example, in design courses and management courses, many students with working experiences can point out mistakes made in their work environment without embarrassing their company. This sharing of experience is important to making many courses more relevant to the students who have not lived through such experiences. Many of the key features of the current system are summarized in the communication structures table (Turoff, et. al., 1990; Turoff, 1991; Turoff, et. al., 1993).
Many of the advanced features are incorporated into the system as "Activities," that provide a common interface for faculty to create and students to do special activities through specific programs, e.g., a Gradebook Activity that is basically a spreadsheet with privileges. Any number and type of additional specialized programs could be incorporated through Activities. In addition, the total system currently includes an Off-line EIES Interface, operating under Windows, that automates the process of dialing in and downloading all waiting items, and allows off-line composition of replies, to decrease connect time.
The authoring activity of the current Virtual Classroom[TM] allows faculty and teachers to publish assignments, exams and lectures. An author can use almost any word processor and can include reference to multimedia objects on the INTERNET or on local systems. The back end of the authoring agent is a combination of various software tools which produce data in file formats recognized by the front end (X tools and Mosaic). Common image file formats can include GIF, JPEG and Postscript, which all can be displayed by Mosaic along with text (HTML format) in a hyper-media environment.
Computer Facility Utilization Physical Analogy
Private conferences Class discussions & lecture Classroom Study groups
Student working groups
Tutoring groups
Public conferences Teacher/Student Lounges Coffee houses
Messages Student to student Teacher to Office hours "Hallway"
student Transitory material conversations
Notifications Reminders, Alerts, Transaction Due date notices,
Tracking Participation actions
Notebooks and personal Composition facilities Work book
files
Membership status Who has read and done what Visual presence
assignments (tracking)
Binary file attachments Diagrams, Spread sheets, etc. Sharing of PC software
to comments results
Anonymous signatures Encouraging self-disclosure Impossible in face-to-
Pen-name signatures and experimentation Presenting face classroom
mistakes Game and role playing
Membership directory Finding members by common Clubs, interest group
interests formulation
ACTIVITIES:
Question/Response Forces independent thinking Face-to-face discussion
and active participation questions
Selection Manage distribution of unique Circulate sign up sheets
assignments
Document Self selection of pieces and Printing press and copy
parts of long document machines
Exam Time controlled question set Written exam
Grade book Access to student grade record Asking instructor
We are currently planning to include a comment button in MOSAIC allowing readers to submit feedback. Depending on the "roles" assigned to validated users, additional capabilities will be provided, such as access to comments, modification of a database, membership and roles control. Comments and other group facilities will be collected using the forms capability of the World Wide Web (WWW) browsers and the comment function available in certain browsers (Lynx, Weies). The forms will provide a comment category button that can be used to help route the comment delivery appropriately. The HTML extension for this has been submitted as a potential HTML standard.
A more advanced approach is to consider the lecture notes as a non linear knowledge base (Hypertext) that can be distributed to the students and which acts as a foundation for the linking of the discussions, assignments, and evolution of the group. Furthermore, we can incorporate links to any media forms including animation and operational programs such as educational simulations. The difficulty of this objective is not in its technical feasibility but in the education of educators in how to design, prepare, and utilize such non linear forms of material. It is in the technology of creating materials and aiding educators and students to create and utilize non linear materials that the true pragmatic challenge lies.
The initial course material is being prepared by faculty, with the modules referred to as topics. Each topic contains illustrations in various media such as text, still pictures and slides, video, and interactive software. The students will invoke the courseware through an activity link in the Virtual Classroom or though a World Wide Web interface. An "electronic blackboard" serves as the current interface metaphor.
The power of multimedia technology can be used to assemble course materials in various media forms such as text, slides, full motion audio-video, live video and interactive software on a single powerful interactive platform, referred to as simply "courseware." The introduction of multimedia into courseware allows the instructor complete freedom to incorporate into a remote course those learning situations that previously could only be accomplished in a face-to-face environment. An example would be, the manipulation of complicated machinery by simulation, animation and multimedia presentations.
The integration of Virtual Classroom[TM] and multimedia on the Information Superhighway is also underway at NJIT (Kushwaha & Whitescarver, 1994, Deek & Kimmel, 1994). Current work is the enhancing the media richness of the Virtual Classroom[TM] using the standard protocols of the Internet (e.g., HTML and Mosaic). World Wide Web client software is utilized to integrate the virtual library resources of the information highway as well as the group communication facilities of EIES to provide a comprehensive fully interactive collaborative learning multimedia environment.
The multimedia Virtual Classroom[TM] courseware can be viewed as a computer-mediated application, where the computer acts as a mediator between the application author, who publishes the on-line classroom courseware or "encyclopedia", and the user, who browses the available information and contributes to the authoring as a participant. The author is not just restricted to publish his original work, but has capabilities to reference, include and publish all the relevant information available on the Internet in a multimedia environment.
In similar fashion, users of the courseware, in addition to their innovative contributions, have access to abundant information which can be easily referenced in the courseware discussions. The instructor has to have the ability to integrate new material generated by the current class for the benefit of future classes. The underlying semantic structure for the effective incorporation of material is still a research issue. The ultimate objective for the instructor is the evolution of a knowledge base with a learning oriented semantic and pragmatic topic structure oriented to the given subject matter. This synergetic paradigm creates an information garden for the subject topic under discussion and the author takes the role of a moderator, who communicates with the users in a group communication environment, to manage and organize the information.
The software architecture of the multimedia courseware may be viewed as having three components: the authoring agent, the user agent and the distributed database or group agent. The authoring agent consists of various tools which allow authors, such as instructors, to publish the course material in a manner which is easy and comprehensive. The text material from various sources which have multimedia objects can be submitted using a user friendly authoring environment. For this environment an extremely easy to use and integrated authoring and submitting tool needs to be developed. We cannot expect most educators to master the current hodgepodge of protocols and software. Finally the educator must have the ability to efficiently manage the growing volume of information and communications resulting from the collaborative learning process.
There is a great deal of work still to be accomplished to make this distributed system appear to be completely transparent to both the educators and the students. Currently there is no comprehensive authoring system and no integration between the authoring tools that do exist and the browser type capabilities. In addition, a clearly missing piece is the ability of the educators to develop their courseware on their personal computers and to turn their machines into personal servers to control and regulate the communications environment with their students.
Guilford: Cognition Convergent Divergent
Production Production
HYPERTEXT:
Product Nodes Convergent Links Divergent Links
Units Detail Specification Elaboration
Classes Collection Membership Opposition
Relations Proposition Association Speculation
Systems Summary Path Branch
Transformation Issue Alternative Lateral
Implications Observation Inference Extrapolation
The goal of developing a general purpose hypertext semantic structure has been one of our ongoing research efforts (Balasubramanian & Turoff, 1995). To this point in time the work has been largely theoretical but we have empirically tested our approach in terms of the ability of people to understand the semantic typing (Rao, 1992). We have developed and studied a Hypertext semantic framework based upon Guilford's Theory of the Intellect (Turoff, Rao, & Hiltz, 1991; Rao & Turoff, 1990):
Guilford's (1956, 1967, 1982) model has been used as the primary mechanism to classify all intellectual tests for measuring human cognitive abilities. As the best current match to intellectual mental processes it is an ideal framework for a standardized database structure for interpreting semantic relations in the learning process.
While eighteen nodes and link types may be a learning challenge, each term above can be mapped from other English terms with the use of synonyms. For example:
detail <= definition, reference, fact,
fundamental, footnote, support
proposition <= analogy, relation, model,
axiom, assumption, theorem,
law, belief
At the application level, one may design templates using any semantics appropriate to the content area and map these templates to the above lower level semantic structure. This would provide both content area templates and ways for advanced educators to design their templates for their course material.
The underlying semantic structure, common to all applications, would allow the employment of techniques such as bridge laws (Bieber and Kimbrough, 1992; Bieber & Kacmar, 1995), network analysis, and cluster analysis techniques to aid the instructor in developing and refining the resulting knowledge base. The Guilford semantic structure gives us potentially logical semantic rules such as cutting the divergent links to seek out clusters of convergent knowledge. Such semantic views can be translated to mathematical analysis.
Furthermore, the use of the intellectual process to represent nodes and links means that the use of these semantics becomes a learning process for the student and a learning design process for the educator. It has been shown (Hopkins et al., 1987) that the degree of knowledge people have about a complex situation can be measured by the complexity of the relationship models they design. By capturing the paths a student takes in a Hypertext database and the links that the student creates to improve learning, it may be possible to provide a very powerful form of feedback to the instructor on the student's state of learning. This is certainly an area we wish to explore.
This approach to remote education offers the opportunity to develop new ways in which one can determine the degree of learning that has occurred. Prior work (Hopkins, 1987; Lendaris, 1980) indicates that knowledge about a subject is correlated with the degree of complexity in the abstract models of that subject that the individual can deal with or express. We can design the system to capture the Hypertext paths taken by the student and the semantic Hypertext structures that the student develops in commenting and augmenting the material supplied by the instructor and the other class members.
In essence we have an opportunity to dynamically record portions of the student problem solving process and to provide an analysis of that as a feedback mechanism to the instructor. If further evaluation work determines any statistically significant relationship between the performance of the students on standard assignments and tests and these representations of the students' problem solving processes, we can use the technology to offer a rapid feedback mechanism on learning progress and a replacement for most testing.
Essentially an instructor needs an ability to maintain and offer his "courseware" as a personal database that becomes a server to students. This view is also very consistent with the long standing tradition that the course notes and other learning material materials (e.g. workbooks, text books) that an instructor develops are his or her property. The instructor's server is a combination of a bulletin board, printing press, and publishing/distribution system.
This means that we do not have to have a prior model of the application domain but can allow the educator to build one by relating the interface of the computational software to the Hypertext semantic structure. The result is the ability of an educator to redesign the interface to any existing computational packages. Packages that were originally designed to be only entertainment could be redesigned to be educational if they happen to model valuable knowledge in their operation.
Instructors need the ability to utilize existing software such as simulations and to create animations that employ existing software. As we have already observed, the instructor teaching art, architecture, or engineering design will want to allow the student to playback the actual creation process. Even for using a CAD/CAM system the instructor wants to be able to capture a sequence of interface actions and to be able to add or overlay explanatory material to that interface sequence. A general Hypertext node in an integrated learning system can be a stored explained set of inputs to control and interface to any existing computational software.
As a result, we see the biggest payoff in the simulation area in providing both instructors and teachers with the ability to record their inputs to a simulation, to edit and to eliminate "dead end" interactions, and to document their reasons for choices of input through direct comments and links to appropriate Hypertext material. This means that an instructor can develop a recording of his "playing" of a simulation and document the theory and abstractions he or she is using to make those choices. The student would then be able to play this back and use it as an input to the running of the game and be able to see how the problem solving process of the instructor unfolds as he or she goes through the process of dealing with some complex problem in that application domain.
Using the same software it becomes possible for the student to also record a simulation session to illustrate to the instructor and to the other students the intellectual process used for doing a problem or analysis. This generalized "record and playback" software integrated with the Hypertext and Hypermedia capabilities described above would provide a completely new way of communicating in the remote learning environment. In many learning situations it has been observed that two people together at a computer learn more working together than either one separately. It is this ability to share the actual interaction process of "creating the painting" that this approach entails. The educator will be free to incorporate the actual execution of any existing programs into his or her lesson material.
The other is a game to teach accounting and auditing by having teams to protect and penetrate (for fraud) an inventory data base (Worrell, 1995). In both situations, with the introduction of the game there was greatly enhanced learning of the pragmatics of the situation. However, in both these instances the gaming facilities were tools that were not integrated with the other software components of the Virtual Classroom[[??]] and therefore rather difficult to use (unless one is a Ph.D. student seeking a thesis through the development of the game and the proof of its utility).
The justification for the use of games as a learning device has been the possibility of presenting the complexity of real world situations in such a manner that people can see the results of their decisions (Jacobs & Baum, 1987). Most reviews of gaming effectiveness point to realism as a key parameter in the learning process (Cohen & Rhenmand, 1961). Jacobs and Baum (1987) expressed the belief that the dynamics of the interactions among the team players in a game may be as important to the learning process as the intended cognitive and affective outcomes. We subscribe fully to this view.
The important opportunity introduced by the merging of simulation with asynchronous Computer Mediated Communications is that it becomes possible to add realism to the gaming process. The channels of communication among the players can be structured to reflect constraints in the communication process and multimedia based simulations can be a direct representation of real world situations. The focus of our work on Collaborative Gaming will be to provide a capability for games that will allow tailoring of the communication channels and the easy integration of existing models, simulations, and analysis tools to process gaming data. This will be in the form of a general event and role oriented gaming controller that allows communication tailoring by paths of communication and associated conditionals.
The same facilities that allow us to imposed regulated gaming communication structures also allow us to use Delphi communication structures (Linstone & Turoff, 1975) as collaborative learning exercises. Most of these structures, originally designed for paper and pencil, were dependent upon graphical composition and graphical summarization. Therefore, this area has been largely underutilized because of the prior lack of graphical oriented personal computers in the hands of students.
The fact that people can play the game asynchronously over variable time periods also adds a high degree of efficiency to the effort involved in participating in a game.
The resulting system must be viewed as a toolkit that gives the instructor full control of what aids and techniques to employ in delivering their course. That is one reason we have focused on the metaphor of "activities" that can be chosen and integrated dynamically into a given class conference. The key expansion of the conference database to incorporate a full collaborative Hypertext approach will provide complete freedom for the instructor to facilitate or "weave" the conference discussion. We are beginning to refer to our advanced system as the "ABC" (Activity Based Conference) system to further reflect the idea of tailoring and the idea of simplicity in structuring communications around the learning objectives of a group.
Currently many of us use the technology to integrate our face-to-face classes with our remote students so they are all one class. In addition, there are opportunities for the use of the technology to facilitate multiple instructors, multiple courses, material used across different course sequences, training on the job, and numerous other requirements that in themselves can add to the requirements for software functionality. For example, a management game might involve a sequence of management courses where the more advanced students are assigned higher level management positions in the game.
Once we free ourselves from the mental limits of viewing this technology as a weak sister to face-to-face synchronous education, the potentials to revolutionize education and learning become readily apparent.
Bengu, G., An Interactive Multimedia Courseware on Manufacturing Processes and Systems, International Journal of Applied Engineering Education, 1994.
Bieber, M., & C. Kacmar, Designing Hypertext Support for Computational Applications, submitted to the CACM , special section on Designing Hypermedia Applications, August 1995.
Bieber, M., & S.O. Kimbrough, On Generalizing the Concept of Hypertext, Manage. Information Systems Quarterly 16(1), 1992, 77-93.
Bouton, C., & Garth, R. Y. (1983). Learning in Groups, (New Directions in Teaching and Learning, No. 14). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Cohen, K.J. and E. Rhenman, The Roles of Management Games in Education and Research, Management Sciences, Volume 7, Number 2, January, 1961.
Davie, L. E. & Palmer, P. (1984). Computer teleconferencing for advanced distance education, Journal of University Continuing Education, 10 (2), 56-66.
Deek, F., and H. Kimmel, Educational Reform: Integration of Technologies and Methodologies in Content Areas, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference for Systems Integration, Sao Paulo City, Brazil. August 1994.
Guilford, J.P., The Structure of Intellect, Psychological Bulletin, (53:4), 1956, 267-293.
Guilford, J.P., The Nature of Human Intelligence, McGraw-Hill Publishers, 1967.
Guilford, J.P., Cognitive Psychology's Ambiguities: Some Suggested Remedies, Psychological Bulletin, (89:1), 1982, 48-59.
Harasim, L. Ed. (1990). Online education: Perspectives on a new medium, New York: Prager/Greenwood.
Harasim, L. Hiltz, S.R., Teles, L. and Turoff, M. Learning Networks: A Field Guide, To be published by MIT Press, 1995.
Hiltz, S.R., 1992. Constructing and Evaluating a Virtual Classroom, in Martin Lea, ed., Contexts of Computer-Mediated Communication. London, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 188- 208.
Hiltz, S.R., 1986, The Virtual Classroom: Using Computer-Mediated Communication for University Teaching, J. of Communication, 36,2 Spring: 95-104
Hiltz, S.R., 1988, Collaborative Learning in a Virtual Classroom: Highlights of findings, CSCW Proceedings, 1988.
Hiltz, R., 1990, Collaborative Learning: The Virtual Classroom Approach, Technological Horizons in Education Journal, vol. 17, No. 10, June 1990, pp. 59-65.
Hiltz, S.R., 1993, Correlates of Learning in a Virtual Classroom, International Journal of Man Machine Systems, 39 (1993), 71-98.
Hiltz, S.R. 1994, The Virtual Classroom: Learning Without Limits Via Computer Networks, Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation, Human-Computer Interaction Series.
Hiltz, S.R. and M. Turoff, Structuring Computer-Mediated Communications to Avoid Information Overload, CACM, (28:7), July 1985, 680-689.
Hiltz, S.R. and Turoff, M. The Network Nation: Human Communication via Computer, Addison Wesley Advanced Book Program, 1978. Revised edition published by MIT Press, 1993.
Hopkins, R.H., K.B. Cambell, and N.S. Peterson, Representation of Perceived Relations among the Properties and Variables of a Complex System, IEEE Transactions SM&C, SMC-17:1, Jan./Feb. 1987.
Hsu, E. (1989). Role-event gaming simulation in management education: A conceptual framework & review, Simulation & Games 20 (4), 409-438.
Hsu, E. (1991). Management games for management education: A case study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Graduate School of Business, Rutgers University, Newark NJ.
Hsu, E., & Hiltz, S.R. (1991). Management gaming on a computer-mediated conferencing system: A case of collaborative learning through computer conferencing, Proceedings of the Twenty Fourth Annual Meeting of the Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Vol. IV. (pp. 367-371). Washington, DC: IEEE Computer Society..
Jacobs, Ronald and Maryanne Baum, Simulation and Games in Training and Development: Status and Concerns about their use, Simulation and Games, Volume 18, Number 3, September 1987, 385-394.
Kushwaha, R., and Whitescarver, J., Integration of Virtual Classroom and Multimedia on the Information Superhighway, ISMM International Conference on Distributed Multimedia Systems Applications , August 15-17, Hawaii, 1994.
Lendaris, G., Structural Modeling: A tutorial Guide, IEEE transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, SMC-10, 12, December 1980.
Linstone, H. and M. Turoff, The Delphi Method: Techniques and Applications, Addison-Wesley, 1975.
Nanard, J. and M. Nanard, Using Structured Types to Incorporate Knowledge into Hypertext, in: Hypertext '91 Proceedings (San Antonio, Dec. 1991) 329-343.
Quinn, C.N., Mehan, H., Levin, J.A., & Black, S.D. (1983). Real education in non-real time: The use of electronic messaging systems for instruction, Instructional Science, 11, 313-327.
Paulsen, M.F., and Rekkedal, T., The Electronic College: Selected Articles from the EKKO Project, Bekkestua, NKI Forlaget, Norway, 1990.
Rao, U., & Turoff, M., (1990), Hypertext Functionality: A Theoretical Framework, Intern. J. of Human-Computer Interaction, 4(2), 333-358.
Rao, U., A Theoretical Framework for Hypertext, Ph.D. Dissertation, Rutgers Graduate School of Management, 1992, Newark, NJ.
Turoff, M., S.R. Hiltz, A. N. F. Bahgat, & Ajaz Rana. Distributed Group Support Systems, MIS Quarterly; Dec. 1993, 399-417.
Turoff, M., (1970) Delphi Conferencing: Computer Based Conferencing with Anonymity, J. of Technological Forecasting and Social Change 3(2), 1970.
Turoff, M., 1991. Computer-mediated requirements for group support, J. of Org. Computing, 1(1), 85-113.
Turoff, M., J. Foster, S.R. Hiltz, & K. Ng, The TEIES Design & Objectives: CMC & Tailorability, Procee. of the 22 HICSS, III, 403-411. Washington, IEEE Computer Society. Reprinted in Nahouraii & Petry, Object-Oriented Databases, IEEE Comp. Society Press, 1990.
Turoff, M., Rao, U. & Hiltz, S.R., Collaborative Hypertext in Computer Mediated Communications, Proceedings of the 24th HICSS, January 1991.
Welsch, L.A. (1982). Using electronic mail as a teaching tool, Communications of the ACM, 25 (2), 105-108.
Wells, R.A., Computer-mediated communications for Distance Learning and Training, Boise State University, Boise, ID., 1990.
Whipple, W. R. (1987). Collaborative learning: Recognizing it when we see it, Bulletin of the American Association for Higher Education, 40, (2), 3-7.
Whitescarver, J., et al, A Network Environment for Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, Frontiers in Computer Technology ACM SIGCOMM, 1987.
Wolfe, Joseph, The Effects of Game Complexity on the Acquisition of Business Policy Knowledge, Decision Sciences, Volume 9, Number 1, January, 1978, 148-155.
Wolfe, Joseph, The Teaching Effectiveness of Games in Collegiate Business Curses: A 1973-1983 Update, Simulation and Games, Volume 16, 1985, 251-288.
Worrell, B., A Computer Based Learning Game for Accounting Education, Ph.D. Dissertation, Rutgers Graduate School of Management, 1995, Newark, NJ