PARTHENON BENCHMARK
This site has been chosen as a benchmark because it embodies the ideals of Ancient Greek society and represents the apotheosis of Classical Greek artistic and architectural perfection. The Parthenon is located atop the Acropolis, the highest summit and sacred rock in Athens, Greece. (Acropolis means 'high city,' and the limestone outcropping was originally the site of a fortress.) Buildings on the Acropolis include the Parthenon; the Temple of Athena Nike; the Erechtheum (an Ionic temple); and the Propylaea (the entrance gateway). Construction of the Parthenon began in 447-446 BC and was completed in 438 BC. The architects were Ictinus and Calli crates; Pheidias was the sculptor of the elaborate and extensive sculptural groupings. Constructed as a temple to the goddess Athena, the Parthenon is built primarily in the Doric order with some Ionic elements, and is considered the best physical embodiment of the mathematical and structural principles of the Doric order. The political leader Pericles led the campaign to build the Parthenon as a monument to the city's triumph over the Persians; as a symbol of Athens' supremacy, wealth, and beauty; and as an offering to the goddess Athena. It was under his rule that construction of the temple began. The Parthenon is constructed of marble quarried from Mount Pentelicon and with the exception of the wooden roof structure, the building including the roof tiles, was entirely made of marble. Note that the Parthenon is actually the second Parthenon. Construction on an earlier building had begun before 480 BC when the city was attacked and sacked by the Persians. The extant Parthenon is built on the foundations of the older Parthenon.
The Parthenon is a Greek temple and displays architectural elements that are typical of Greek Doric-order architecture, as well as elements that are atypical. Typical of a Greek Temple is the screen of massive Doric columns that surrounds the building. A Doric column is heavy and robust. It has no base and sits flush on the temple floor/top step, known as the stylobate. A Doric capital (topmost part of the column) is rather simple, and is said to resemble a pillow or cushion. The column's shaft (middle part) is carved into deep flutes that come to a point. At the Parthenon, the columns are 34' 3" high. At their base, the diameter of each column is 6' 3". Like all Doric columns, those at the Parthenon taper slightly towards the top.
The three main types of columns used in Greek temples and other public buildings are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The truest and most basic difference among the orders has to do with proportions (Doric columns, for example, being thicker and shorter, Ionic columns taller and slimmer). As a shortcut, the orders may be distinguished most easily by their capitals (the tops of the columns). As you can see from the following examples, the Doric capital has the simplest design; the Ionic has the curlicues called volutes, and the Corinthian has the acanthus leaves: A Greek temple usually sits atop a platform that is composed of three steps or levels. The Parthenon's stylobate is 101' 4" wide and 228' 1" long.
The screen of columns, or peristyle, surrounded the building completely. When a single row of columns surrounds a Greek Temple, the temple is called peripteral. When the temple is surrounded by a double row of columns, it is dipteral. On mainland Greece, peripteral temples were far more common. The Parthenon is peripteral. In most cases, the temple would have six columns at the front and rear of the building, although the Parthenon has eight.
Originally, an entablature with a pediment (part of the roofing system) topped the peristyle. The roof itself consisted of wooden structural members and marble tiles to cover and enclose the space. The roof was sloped, resulting in a triangular shape at the front and rear ends. When a roof forms a triangular shape, it is called a gable, and in Classical architecture, this triangular element is known as a pediment. Sculptural figures were placed in both the east and west pediments (front and rear, respectively). The pediment sits on top of an entablature, essentially a stone support that held up the pediment. The peristyle, entablature, and pediment are built using the post-and-beam method of construction. The entablature is divided into two horizontal bands: the architrave and the frieze. The architrave is unadorned , but the frieze is divided into nearly square-like sections. These sections are called triglyphs and metopes, and they alternate for the length of the entire frieze. The triglyphs are carved into three vertical bands and the metopes can either be left unadorned, or carved with sculptural figures in low relief At the Parthenon, the metopes are carved and they depict various stories of Greek mythology. Today, the Parthenon is bright, white, gleaming marble, but in antiquity, the building and all of its sculptural groupings-including the pediment figures, the triglyphs, and metopes--were painted in a bright, polychrome scheme of gold, red, and blue.
Behind the peristyle is the Greek Temple itself. It is essentially a rectangular load-bearing structure that consists of a front porch and a back porch (which was largely decorative and served no ceremonial or functional purpose). Towards the top of the temple walls, there is a frieze, a continuous carved band that runs the entire perimeter of the building. This band depicts the Great Panathenaia, the celebration that was marked once every four years when the entire population of Ahtens visited the Parthenon. This continuous sculpted frieze is normally characteristic of Ionic temples. On the interior, the building is more or less one large room, known as the naos or the cella. The Parthenon's naos is divided in two, creating an unusual back room, the purpose of which is not known, but may have been a treasury. In the naos, a double-height colonnade laid out in a "U" shape ringed the room. In the back room, four Ionic columns stood in the middle, another Ionic touch in an otherwise Doric temple.
Inside the naos stood the cult statue. The physical form of Greek Temples was derived directly from Greek religious practice. The Ancient Greeks were pantheistic, and believed that the gods resembled humans, only in a larger and more beautiful, idealized form. To please the gods, the Greeks built temples to them and honored them by depicting their images and stories in paintings and sculpture. Inside every Greek Temple was a statue of the god to whom that particular temple was dedicated. This statue was the temple's raison d'etre, as the Greeks believed that protecting the statue was of paramount importance. Indeed, the statue was the only reason the Greeks built the temple at all. The interior of a Greek Temple was not the site of any religious practices; all ceremonies, sacrifices, and worshiping took place outside of the temple, at an adjacent altar. Greek Temples have been described as elaborate jewel boxes whose primary purpose was to protect the statue from the elements and birds. The Parthenon is typical of Greek Temples in this manner. Its cult statue, a massive sculpture of Athena, stood 33' tall. It certainly must have been a work of stunning beauty; the sculptor Pheidias (sometimes considered the greatest sculptor of all time) created a wooden armature that was covered in a veneer of ivory with gold plating for the clothing and precious stones for the eyes. This type of sculpture is known as chryselephantine (gold and ivory). Although there are descriptions of the sculpture from antiquity that survive, scholars do not know exactly what the statue looked like; the sculpture was completely gone by the end of the middle ages.
The Parthenon remained virtually unchanged throughout much of antiquity. Even when Athens came to be incorporated into the Roman Empire, the building was more or less left alone. However, after the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the building was converted to a Roman Catholic church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Turks, and Athens followed a few years later. At that time, the Parthenon was converted again, this time to a mosque. Later, the Turks used the Parthenon as an arsenal and stored gunpowder in the building.
When the Venetians stormed the Acropolis in 1687, the gunpowder was ignited and there was an enormous explosion; the Parthenon was severely damaged. (The entire center of the building was blown out.) The Venetians eventually left, and the Turks built a mosque in the interior of the Parthenon. Throughout the years, souvenir hunters pilfered sculpture, loosened stones, etc., and a great deal of the Parthenon's sculptural material was permanently lost. By the 18th century, the Parthenon was a wreck.
Perhaps one of the best-known examples of removed sculptural material is the case of the Elgin marbles. Between 1799 and 1801, Lord Elgin, the British ambassador to Turkey, in an attempt to rescue and preserve the remaining sculptural figures, removed-with the permission of the ruling Turkish government--several sculptures, portions of the frieze, and sculpted metopes. He gave the marbles to the British Museum in 1816. They remain there today.
In modem times, the Acropolis was further damaged during the Greek War of Independence that ended in 1830. By 1833, an archaeological dig of the entire Acropolis was begun.
During the 20th century, pollution and its corrosive effects have posed a severe problem to the preservation of the Parthenon.
This site can be used to address the following themes of World History as recommended by the New York State Regents.
1. Democracy. Born in Ancient Greece, democracy is the foundation of the United States' political system of America (though the United States system is actually a Republic). Many of America's public or government buildings are modeled on the Parthenon. The Parthenon itself is a product and embodiment of democratic ideals. It was built with public funds, at the public's behest. At one point however, the public did complain that too much money was being spent on the construction of the Parthenon. Pericles offered to pay for the rest of the building himself but the populace objected preferring to pay for the structure. The Parthenon is a demonstration of how a monumental structure can be representative of a society's political ambition and ideals. Compare the ideal of democracy from ancient Greek society to the forms of democracy in the modern world.
2. Political Forms and Divisions - The Greek civilization expanded after 750 BC and they developed a unique form of the city-state, which they called the polis. These cities were independent governments that evolved through different governmental forms from monarchy to aristocracy, oligarchy. Athens, located in Attica, eventually evolved into a limited democracy from an aristocracy. The city-states were built on two levels, the acropolis stood on a hilltop and was the "high city". Atop the acropolis stood great marble temples dedicated to various gods and goddesses. The lower city, on flatter ground below was the main walled city with a marketplace, theatre, public buildings and homes. The Parthenon, built once democracy was established, is located atop the acropolis in Athens.
3. Political Alliances - The Parthenon was built in the wake of the Persian Wars, and was, in many ways, a direct affirmation of Athens' primacy over the invading Persians. Students can learn the political context surrounding the development and creation of the Parthenon and it can be studied to illustrate the reasons nations or states form alliances against a common enemy. For example, by learning about the Delian League and other political alliances that were formed in antiquity, students can draw parallels to contemporary geo-political conflicts. (For more information about the Delian League, see Woodford, p. 4-8; Hopper, p.125- on)
4. Warfare - The Athenians were great warriors with a sophisticated strategy and technology. One of the most noted wars was the Persian Wars in which the Athenians were victorious over the Persians. Ancient Greece is also famous for the Trojan War.
5. Ancient Civilizations - Ancient Greece embodied all the qualities of a civilization. Many of these are embodied in the Parthenon. Monumental structures themselves are a key element of a civilization but the Parthenon also demonstrates an advanced building technology, hierarchal government and stratified social system. Organized religion is another key element of a civilization that is demonstrated in the Parthenon. This can bee seen in the reliefs of the metopes and pediments that depict many scenes from Greek mythology. Many practice of the ancient Greek religion would have been carried out at the Parthenon.
6. Polytheism - The Ancient Greeks were polytheistic. Many of the themes or figures of Greek religion survive in modern form in pantheistic religions that are practiced today. Many of the stories of Greek mythology are illustrated on the Parthenon's metopes, including the birth of Athena. Additionally many of the practices of Greek religion would have been carried out here. The pediments of the Parthenon depict deities and mythological tales that were integral to ancient Greek society.
7. Archaeology - A great deal of what is known about ancient Greece is through archaeology. Archaeology is the study of past human civilizations through their material remains, including buildings. If possible archaeologist also use written records to assist them in their analyses. Archaeology is a different form of historical inquiry that can teach about ancient civilizations and fill gaps in recent history. It has the unique ability to teach about the everyday persons of a society, not just those who were documented in official histories. Also, an archaeological dig, by its very nature, destroys the site. Is the knowledge that is derived from archaeological studies more valuable than preserving the site and keeping its integrity intact? Since archaeology is destructive students can consider the ethical dilemmas of excavating sites and who owns the artifacts and other materials excavated.
8. Language - Ancient Greek is very different from modern Greek, it is a language that evolved over many centuries. Ancient Greek has become obsolete as a spoken language but there are still readers of the ancient form. Like Greek, many languages evolve over time.
9. Cultural Heritage and Patrimony - The Elgin Marbles were taken from the Parthenon in 1801. In 1816, they were given to the British Museum and have been there ever since. Greece would like them back. What laws do countries have governing the protection of their historic, artistic, and cultural treasures? What is the history of these laws? When did they come into being? How do they vary from country to country? What constitutes an artistic, historic, or cultural treasure? What standards are applied to determine the value of a specific artifact?
10. Architecture - Greek Architecture has been one of the most influential and enduring styles of architecture. Many buildings in the United States are modeled after the architecture of ancient Greece. One example of a Greek Temple form in New York is Federal Hall in Lower Manhattan.
In English this site can he used to learn about mythology, word origins and literature.
Many of the stories of Greek mythology are illustrated on the Parthenon's metopes, including the birth of Athena. Additionally many of the practices of Greek religion would have been carried out here.
Greek temples have many distinct parts. Each part has a name. In order to understand the temple and be able to describe the building, students must become familiar with the architectural terms. By learning about Greek word origins, students can increase their English vocabulary.
Familiarity with the Parthenon and Ancient Athens will help students studying Homer, Plutarch, or any of the Classical authors put the stories into their historic context. Students might use the poetry of Sappho to bring the thoughts and emotions of the Greek people to life. Students reading Melville would be interested to read Melville's impressions of the Parthenon (which he visited in 1856) and his poem entitled "The Parthenon." The Parthenon has inspired Greek poets in modern times, i.e., the 19th century and on.
Connections between this site and science are corrosion of stone and metal and the interactions of various materials.
The marble on the Parthenon has deteriorated severely in the last 200 years. Located in the middle of a busy urban center, the Parthenon continues to exist in the face of pollution, automobile emissions, and acid rain. All of these are contributors to the deterioration of the structure's building materials. Consider which pollutants have been the most harmful. The blocks of the Parthenon are held together with metal bars. Consider the effects pollution has had on these bars. What predictions can students make about the continued decline of the state of the Parthenon? A great deal of effort has gone into the continued conservation of the Parthenon. Science classes can explore the chemistry of abating the deterioration of marble and other stone.
Also consider if modern materials can be added to the Parthenon in places where original material is missing. Consider how the modern materials would interact with the ancient materials. Also how will the modern materials age, what and how much deterioration will they suffer.?
Connections between this site and mathematics are refinements, measurement and ration and proportion.
The Parthenon is full of architectural "refinements," barely perceptible curves (on a building that appears completely angular) that enhance the structure's beauty. These refinements exist on the columns, where the columns not only taper slightly towards the top, but bulge in the middle. This bulge is called entasis. Additionally, the columns tilt inwards towards the roof. The entire stylobate curves, much as the deck of a ship displays a slight curve called a camber. Can students measure the angles on the building? Students might build a model of a Greek temple that displays refinements. Building the model would require extensive measuring and geometric calculations.
The walls of the cella were built with no mortar. They were carved perfectly to fit into place with one another. The same was true for the drums of the columns. Can students develop a geometric proof for ensuring that the shapes of the blocks will fit? Is there an algebraic equation that they can use? The Greeks used what we would consider rudimentary tools to build the Parthenon. Using the tools that the Greeks had, can students devise a written plan for measuring the building elements, and ensuring that they will be upright? Without the use of a level or a T-square, how did the Greeks ensure a right angle?
The Parthenon and Greek Temples are built according to the principle of the "Golden Mean" or the "Golden Section." This is an irrational proportion that informs the entire design. It is said that the proportion was derived to ensure a clear and perfectly framed view of the cult statue as one would approach the entrance to the temple. On the Parthenon, the Golden Mean is 5:8. Using a drawing of the Parthenon's facade, students can highlight the Golden Section.
Some recommended activities to use with the site are to try to recreate the sculptural groupings on the pediments. Based on research, students can try to imagine what the Parthenon sculpture looked like. Have a debate about the status and the future of the Elgin marbles. Research how the practices of archaeology and excavations have changed in the last 200 years. What impact have these excavations had on the Parthenon? Write a myth based on modem figures. Stage a Classical Greek play. Write a poem about the Parthenon. Imagine you are a traveler in the 18th century visiting Greece. Create a journal with drawings, thoughts, and your impressions of Athens. Now imagine you are that same visitor today. Create another journal. What would be different? What would be the same? How have the ancient monuments changed?
Some local buildings which relate to themes addressed in this unit and could be used for additional study are:
Federal Hall- excellent example of the Greek Temple form including stone roof tiles
Brooklyn Borough Hall - uses many classical elements
Village Presbyterian Church on W. 13th Street - Another temple form
Sailors' Snug Harbor - Contains a series of buildings built as Greek Temples
Nashville Parthenon - An almost exact replica of the Parthenon has been built in Nashville, TN.
Some recommended activities to use on a visit to this site are not applicable. It is not likely that the students will make a site visit to the Parthenon. However, on a visit to Federal Hall, students could easily compare the two sites. Students could measure the various parts of the building, looking especially for mathematical refinements such as entasis. Students might write about the connections between Greek architecture and American government and should learn about the construction methods employed at Federal Hall and how they mirror those used by the ancient Greeks. Students might also compare the relative scale of the two buildings. Today Federal Hall looks very small dwarfed by the skyscrapers of Wall Street, yet to the people of Athens, the Parthenon was a towering structure. What is the difference between the two?
Some other ideas, which could be explored or expanded on having to do with this site, are The Parthenon was built due to the vision of Pericles, Athens' leader in the 5th century BC Before Pericles' ideas were carried out in stone, Athens was a largely unremarkable place, with no distinct or prominent public buildings. What other figures in history have made a lasting mark on a city? Two suggestions are Robert Moses (New York City in the 20th century) and Baron Haussmann (Paris in the 19th century); The Parthenon was built atop the remains of a ruined, devastated, and war-torn city. How have other cities faced rebuilding after catastrophic events? (Berlin after WWII and the American South after the Civil War are but two examples.) What parallels can students draw between the state of Athens after the Persian War and Lower Manhattan in the aftermath of September 11? The remains of the original Parthenon were incorporated into the extant Parthenon as a war memorial and reminder of the damage the Persians had wrought. Where else in history have destroyed structures and monuments stood as painful lessons of history? Again, what connections can students make to the site of the World Trade Center?
MODULES
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Global History I
Alexander and the Hellenistic Age
Early People of the Aegean and the Rise of Greek City-States
The Glory That Was Greece
Victory and Defeat in the Greek World
World Literature
Greek Literature
Algebra - Math A
Rational Expressions
Biology
Blood and Immunity
Chemical Names and Formula
Gas Exchange
RECOMMENDED READINGS
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Bouras, Ch. and others. Proceedings: 2nd International Meeting for the Restoration of the Acropolis Monuments-Parthenon-September 12-14, 1983. Committee for the Preservation of the Acropolis Monuments; Athens. 1985.
Papers that were presented at this conference. Excellent scientific resource.
Brouskari, Maria. The Monuments of the Acropolis. Archaeological Receipts Fund; Athens. 1997.
Great information about the prehistoric Acropolis as well as detailed information about the Parthenon. Special emphasis is placed on the sculpture and artwork of the Parthenon.
Carpenter, Rhys. "On Restoring the East Pediment of the Parthenon," in American Journal of Archaeology (July, 1962), p. 265-268.
Excellent article by a renowned scholar.
Casanaki, Maria and Fanny Mallouchou. The Acropolis of Athens: Conservation, Restoration, and Research 1975-1983. The Committee for the Preservation of the Acropolis Monuments; Athens. n.d.
Great scientific background from a traveling exhibit about the science of preserving and conserving the Parthenon and other monuments on the Acropolis.
Connelly, Joan B. "Parthenon and Parthenoi: A Mythological Interpretation of the Parthenon Frieze," in American Journal of Archaeology (January, 1996), p. 53- 80.
Great mythological history and background.
Decker, Wilbur F. "The Horizontal Lines of the Parthenon Compared with the Sea Horizon," in The American Architect and Building News (August 18, 1900), p. 51-52.
Great geometric look at the design of the Parthenon. Also interesting to read such an old article.
Gray, Christopher. "An 1835 Greek Revival Mansion on the North Shore," in the New York Times (March 3, 2002).
Interesting article about local Greek Revival mansion and the preservation efforts surrounding it.
Green, Peter. The Parthenon. Newsweek Book Division; New York. 1973.
Beautiful photographs and great essays. Includes a wonderful chapter about the Parthenon in literature. Also includes background about Pericles and the rise of Athens. Appendices include a chronology of Ancient Greek history and a guide to Ancient Athens.
Harris, Diane. The Treasures of the Parthenon and the Erechtheion. Clarendon Press; Oxford. 1995.
Detailed study about the treasures that were kept in the Parthenon and the Erechtheion.
Hopper, R.J. The Acropolis. The Macmillan Company; New York. 1971.
Excellent historic background, including the pre-Acropolis. Also includes a chronology of Greek history and a glossary.
Korres, Manolis. The Stones of the Parthenon. Melissa Publishing House: Athens. 1995.
Detailed construction information. Includes data about stone carving; transporting material to the building site; fitting blocks into place; and more. Also includes a glossary.
Konomides, Al N. The Acropolis of Athens. N. Gouvoussis; Athens. 1972.
Good short history with good diagrams of the Greek architectural orders.
Rodenwaldt, Gerhart. The Acropolis. Basil Blackwell; Oxford. 1957.
Mainly wonderful photographs, but a nice introductory essay.
Rhodes, Robin Francis. Architecture and Meaning on the Athenian Acropolis. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge. 1995.
Excellent overall background. Includes chapters on the spiritual legacy of the Periclean Acropolis and the integrated Parthenon. Also includes a great glossary.
Sgarbi, Claudio. "Curve Invisibili, Invisible Curves," in Spazio & Societa (Jan.-March 1994), p. 80-85.
In Italian and English. Good geometric study of the 'refinements' on the Parthenon.
Tournikiotis, Panayotis, ed. The Parthenon and its Impact on Modern Times. Melissa Publishing House; Athens. 1994.
Essays by different authors include: The Parthenon in the Consciousness of Modern Greek Poets and Thinkers; Restoration Work on the Parthenon and Changing Attitudes towards the Conservation of Monuments; The Parthenon as Cultural Ideal; The Parthenon from Antiquity to the 19th Century; The Place of the Parthenon in the History and Theory of Modern Architecture; the Architecture of the Parthenon; and a chronology of the Parthenon.
Woodford, Susan. The Parthenon. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge. 1981.
Short and excellent introduction to the Parthenon. Includes glossary.
RECOMMENDED WEB SITES
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http.//old.jccc.net/~jjackson/part.html
Good overall background with information about construction techniques; the polis; the goddess Athena; historical background; and religious and political context.
http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/The_Parthenon.html
Basic statistics; plan drawing; 3-D spatial model workshop; link to information about Ictinus and Callicrates with Pheidias. Photos.
http://www.uk.digiserve.com/mentor/marbles/
Historical background of the Elgin Marbles (a.k.a. the Parthenon Marbles) with the Greek and British points of view. Includes news of recent development, and a page for school children. Pages on the site include: Picture galleries; history of the marbles; and what are the marbles? Also has articles and documents pertaining to the on-going controversy.
http://chaos1.hypermart.net/
Company that sells historic timelines and charts. You don't have to order, though. From homepage, click on "History Timeline Posters," then click on "Ancient Greece." From there, you can enlarge the image. (Other timelines may be useful for other classes, e.g., timelines from the Ancient World, World History, and U.S. History.)
http://harpy.uccs.edu/greek/parthenon.html
Great photos, plans, and drawings. Includes a link to information about Greek art and architecture. Also includes a Golden Mean flash demonstration. Link to Greek and Roman websites. Listing includes: general sites; architecture sites; mythology sites; and women in ancient culture sites.
http://www.unesco.org/webworld/mediter/parthenon.htm
Virtual Parthenon includes still images and a 3-D model that can be manipulated.
http://www.willamette.edu/cla/wviews/parthenon/
Parthenon Image Archive index; Parthenon Bibliography; and Parthenon links.
http://academic.reed.edu/humanities//110Tech/Parthenon.html
Articles about the Parthenon's setting; its architecture; the Greek architectural orders; the metopes; the pediments; the frieze; and ancient authors (with links). Also includes the text of Professor Minott Kerr's lecture on the Parthenon.
http://www.ancient-theme.com/1998/dee.html
In 1998, the Acropolis Project (a fan-created Lego ancient theme) sponsored a contest. Photos of the Parthenon rendered in Legos and other monuments. Just plain fun! Click on "See more pictures at Richard J. Dee's website" for more photos of the Lego Parthenon.
http://www.inform.umd.edu/Student/Campus_Activities/StudentOrg/digenis/Parthenon/About/about.html
"From Pentelicon to the Parthenon" tells the story of how the marble used to build the Parthenon was quarried, transported to the Acropolis, shaped, and erected.
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