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      This site has been chosen as a benchmark because it is part of a large and important complex of Hindu Temples at Khajuraho. These temples were abandoned and long-forgotten until rediscovered by British Captain T.S. Burt, in 1838. The temples at Khajuraho not only illustrate the wonder and beauty of Hindu Temple design, but also the nature of Hindu religious practice, the integration of Hindu beliefs into all aspects of life. In addition, it can help us understand the creation of towns across India in relation to bodies of water and the importance of water, and the influences and attitudes of the British in India in the 19th and 20th centuries.
      The Vishvanatha Temple is one of over 80 temples originally built by the Chandella rulers, begun possibly as early as 850 AD, and built over a period of about 300 years. The form of these temples was a familiar type already in use throughout the region. Generally these temples include a solid slab base, walls pierced by window and balcony openings exuberantly ornamented with sculpture, topped by series of conical roofs which relate the temple to a mountain range. Most temples at Khajuraho are built of a fine sandstone; however the earliest few temples are built of granite. Today less than 20 of the original temples remain in any well-preserved form.
      The Vishvanatha Temple in particular is a part of the western group of temples at Khajuraho. It sits upon a high plinth, which can be reached by one of two flights of stairs, one flanked by lions, the other by elephants. The temple measures about 87 feet by 46 feet and is very similar in plan to what is considered the finest temple of the Khajuraho complex, the Kansariya Mahadeva.
      The Vishvanatha Temple, built by Chandella king Dhanga in 1002-1003 AD, follows the basic from of most Hindu Temples, with a long entrance passage leading to a sacred image within. The location of this image within the temple (a linga, cylindrical stone symbolizing cosmic energy, in the case of the Vishvanatha Temple which is dedicated to Shiva), can be easily recognized from the building's exterior as the location of the highest peak of the building's roofs. A visitor's journey within the temple is one from light to dark, from spacious to small and intimate, and from worldly to spiritual.
      It was common for royalty to commission the construction of great temples, and it is not surprising that the Chandella dynasty concentrated their temple building efforts on their capital city of Khajuraho. Because temples and other architecture were often the works of royal families, they were often destroyed as each dynasty was overtaken by the next, in the seemingly constant political unrest that characterizes much of Indian history. It is, therefore, particularly impressive that so many of the temples at Khajuraho still exist today and can be used to learn about the history of India and her people.
      The interior of the temple is highly ornamented, with ornate carving particularly located at the doorways, columns and ceilings. The sculptural program of the temples at Khajuraho, and most Hindu temples, is characterized by rounded human, animal and plant forms in artistic and energetic compositions. These sculptural works fill up ever inch of the temple's surface and help to blur the distinction between angular architectural forms and organic, flowing natural forms. Thus these sculptures help the temples to fit into their natural landscape, an important part of temple design. The temple basically becomes one large piece of sculpture. The temples at Khajuraho have also been particularly noted for the profusion of sexually themed carvings including coupled individuals and scantily clad women. Indeed, captain Burt who discovered the site in 1838 was scandalized by these sculptures, which have now become a modem tourist attraction.
      The plan of the Hindu temples features a prominent east/west axis and a vertical axis, the two of which converge at the focal point of the temple, the representation of the deity. The majority of Hindu temples are dedicated to one of the many Hindu gods or goddesses. Hindus believe that Brahma, the one god, is represented in a pantheon of lesser gods and goddesses each of which represent a particular aspect of Brahma. This embodiment based on a god or goddess' personality allows worshippers to focus on the aspect of god which they feel most drawn to. For example, the god Ganesh is considered the remover of obstacles and is worshipped by many at the start of a new endeavor. In this way, Hinduism is both a monotheistic and polytheistic religion. While many individual gods and goddesses are worshipped, they are each a different representation of the one god.
      The interior plan of the Vishvanatha Temple is made up of the same basic parts of all Hindu temples of this period. The building is entered through an entrance porch (called ardha- mandapa) which leads into the long pillared hall of the temple (called the mandapa) which is the gathering place for most worshippers (like the nave in a cruciform church). This hall leads into a small rectangular chamber called the antarala which acts as a vestibule for the inner sanctum called the garha-griha (translated womb-cell) which houses the sacred image of the deity. All around the inner area is an ambulatory passage. The Vishvanatha Temple also has two side projections much like the transept of a cruciform church.
      The structural system employed at Vishvanatha and all Hindu temples, is a simple post and beam system. Doorways and columns support large beams or slabs, which form lintels. Some use of cantilevers and corbelling is used, particularly in construction of the mountain- like conical roofs. The use of this seemingly simple system does not denote an undeveloped technological ability on the part of 9th century Hindus, but instead demonstrates a strict adherence to religious tradition and a belief that only perfect proportions in temple construction would guarantee a connection with the desired deity and the cosmos.
      The temple complex at Khajuraho also consists of three large tanks, or human-made lakes that provide water for the village and serve as ceremonial bathing areas. This illustrates, not only the importance of water in Hindu religious practice where water is one of the most sacred elements, but also, the necessity of a water source for the town's residents. India's uncertain climate requires that any area supporting a significant number of people, must have its own water source. If a natural source is not available, then humans must engineer their own water storage and distribution system, similar to the tanks of Khajuraho.
      The "discovery" of Khajuraho in 1838 by Captain Burt illustrates another interesting episode in Indian history, the country's domination by the British from the early 1800s through independence in 1947. Captain Burt's guides knew of the nearly abandoned temple complex at Khajuraho and invited him to visit as he passed nearby on a journey. At the time only one temple in the complex was still in use (Burt records a temple which he was forbidden to enter). Though Burt's visit to Khajuraho was termed a "discovery," it is clear that local residents were well aware of the temple complex. This idea of finding something new to you which is well known to others, is in some ways characteristic of the era of British control of India. Britain favored control of India to facilitate its trade needs there, yet refused to honor local customs and traditions and, instead, imported their own ideas and culture to India, disregarding the wisdom and knowledge of those within the culture. The forced subjugation of India and her people under the British is clearly illustrated by the Burt's "discovery" of the little-used temple complex at Khajuraho.

This site can be used to address the following themes of World History as recommended by the New York State Regents.
1. Polytheism - While Hinduism can be defined as a monotheistic religion, it is most commonly seen by outsiders as polytheistic. Hindu practice is based on the worship of any number of different gods and goddesses.
2. River Cultures and Indus Peoples - Though these temples were not built by the early Harrappan peoples, they are clearly related to them in their polytheistic practice and climatic requirements. Additionally, the siting of this temple still illustrates the importance of a water source in the continuation and advancement of a culture.
3. Hinduism - This is a perfect site to teach the principals and practice of the Hindu faith.
4. Empires of India - Though the Chadellas were not one of the strongest of the Indian dynasties, their actions as temple builders and protectors illustrates the behavior of royals through the country.
5. Pillars of Indian Life - Because Hinduism is pervasive throughout every aspect of Indian life, this site and its surrounding town can be used to teach the basic aspects if Hindu life including farming practice, dress and the caste system.
6. Imperialism - The rediscovery of this site by the British illustrates the dominance of the British over the Indian natives.

In English this site can be used to teach about oral traditions and story telling, Indian literature and illustration.
      Much of the Hindu religious teachings were originally passed down orally and were later written down in the form of the Vedas and other religious texts. Ask your students to consider the effects of passing a story orally. A possible activity would be to tell one student a story and ask he or she to pass the story to their classmates over the next several days. After the story has been told and retold, ask the students to recount all the variations of the story they have heard. Now if the story were to be written down, how different would have been from the original event of the original way the story was told? How accurate then are the religious teachings, which were finally written down (the same phenomenon happened in the early Christian church).
      There are several important pieces of Indian secular literature that can illustrate basics of any English curriculum. These include the epic poem, The Ramayana and numerous shorter works including a wealth of Indian poetry. The theme that pervades most Indian literature is a connection to nature, the seasons and the divine. This connection in literature can be used to reiterate the way Hindus believe that all aspects of life are interconnected and all spring from the creator.
      The temples at Khajuraho use profuse sculptural ornament to tell stories. These sculpted images act as the illustrations for Hindu religious teachings. Because common people would not have been literate at the time these temples were constructed, the many inscriptions throughout the complex, were clearly not intended to educate the masses. Instead, detailed sculpture is incised on every available surface, helping to educate those who cannot read. In what ways do illustrations help to enhance our understanding of the literature we read? Is there ever a time when illustrations interrupt our ability to create meaning from what we read?

Connections between this site and science are human sexuality, ecosystems, necessity of water and built forms which imitate nature.
      The sculpted images throughout the Khajuraho complex, and particularly those of the Vishvanatha Temple can be easily put to use as illustrations of human sexuality and human bodies.
      The town of Khajuraho is built on a river's edge and relies on this river and water storage tanks for the water it needs to exist. How might changes in the town's water use affect other members of the town's ecosystem? How might pilgrims who visit the site once a year cause a strain on the town's water supply or pollute the existing supply? How does access to clean water help towns to thrive? Why is it that the first civilizations were all formed on the banks of reliable rivers?
      The temples at Khajuraho were designed to imitate and work with nature in many ways. Most simply, the temples mimic mountain ranges, a sacred place of the gods. Additionally the temples' interiors are designed to appear cave-like, evoking the earliest Hindu places of worship which were always carved from natural caves and rock faces. The temples are also designed to maximize their relationship with the sun, moon and planets and are constructed on an exact east/west axis.

Connections between this site and mathematics are money and economics, grids, and measurement and proportion.
      Hindu temples often became so wealthy due to the donations of the wealthy, that they were able to begin acting as lending agents. The financing of start-up industries and other endeavors then stimulated wealth in the town, which would be repaid to the temple in additional donations. This is similar to the process of start-up companies today. How are these group financed and what contributions do they make as a result?
      The layout of Hindu temples is carefully designed on a grid called a mandala. This grid is a concentric configuration, usually a large square subdivided into smaller squares by an intersecting grid of lines. The mandala is strictly organized in relation to the four directions and is said to mirror the concentric arrangement of the universe with its concentric formation of lesser squares occupied by the lesser gods and goddesses and the important central square reserved for the temple's most important deity.
      Hindu temple construction is strictly based on a complex system of measurements and proportions. These proportions control every aspect of a temple's design, from its width and height to the size of its doorways and moldings. Temple measurements are often taken in a "finger" or angula and all other measurements are strictly related to this one base measurement. It is said that a temple will not be useful to the god or goddess it is designed to house if it is not proportionately perfect in every way.

      Some recommended activities to use with the site are to ask students to consider the current tourist industry that has sprung up around Khajuraho. It is easy to get information about this industry by visiting one of the many tourist-oriented web sites available about Khajuraho. After browsing the web, students will notice that the sexual sculptures on some of the temples have been used to "sell" this site as a tourist attraction. Ask students how they feel about the emphasis on this aspect of the site's significance. In addition to its possibly misplaced focus, the tourist industry in Khajuraho has caused other strains on the town. The temple complex had been landscaped and deforested to facilitate the viewing of the temples, yet this new configuration is not in keeping with the historic appearance of the site. An airport and numerous highways have been added to provide access to the site, while at the same time bringing the precious antique stones in contact with new pollutants, which are helping to degrade the temples. Finally, four new luxury hotels have been built in the area to cater to western and wealthy tourists. The bathrooms, laundries and swimming pools of these facilities have put a major strain on the town's water supply, thus negatively affecting the residents of the surrounding community. Ask students to develop a preservation plan for the site that promotes respectful tourism and enhances the site and surrounding town, rather than degrading it.
      Use this site to learn more about Hindu ritual and teachings. Interview Hindus in or around your school community and learn the ways that they practice their religion. What role do temples play in their religious practice? In what ways is it more or less difficult to practice their religion in a Judeo-Christian community rather than a culture which is largely Hindu?

      Some local buildings which relate to themes addressed in this unit and could be used for additional study are:
      Local Hindu temples including several in Flushing Queens.

      Some other ideas, which could be explored or expanded on having to do with this site, are Indian advances in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and the arts, migrations including the loss of population in Khajuraho which led to the abandonment of this temple town, the later Muslim influence in India, the creation of Buddhism and Jainism as offshoots of Hinduism and the craft of stone carving used to create the ornament at Khajuraho.